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EXAM 2
Knowledge Check List
Psychology 201
Chapter 6 Learning Realize the importance of learning for humans since, unlike many animals (spiders & fruit flies), we have few instincts and even important behaviors (such as sex) must be learned. Be able to define and differentiate between habituation and adaptation. Habituation involves a decrease and cessation of behavior: Orienting Response Startle Response Some stimuli are much are to habituation: Intense (i.e. loud) Unpredictable Occur at night Adaptation involves a decrease in sensitivity of sense organ (not able to smell aftershave after 10 minutes). Realize why any other learning would be impossible without these basic types of learning. Understand, be able to identify examples of, and be able to diagram classical conditioning. Know the names and the function of the: Neutral Stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned response Be able to define and recognize examples of the following classical conditioning phenomena:
Extinction- the conditioning is undone. The condition stimulus looses ability to cause response. Repeatedly presented with the UNCONDITIONED Stimulus being present (food). The condition stimulus looses its ability to cause the response (salvation). (Kid will not be scared of father’s voice if he is in wheel chair and cannot hit him) Spontaneous recovery- with no further training and just with the passage of time the response can redevelop. The response is very limited, very weak, and the response disappears relatively quickly. (Veteran and gunshots) Generalization- new conditioned stimuli develop which are usually similar to the original conditioned stimulus. EX: a child is bitten by a yellow cat and becomes afraid of ALL yellow cats. (Kid who got hit by dad can become afraid of all men) Discrimination- only the original training stimulus causes the response to occur. All other stimuli, even though similar, fail to produce the response. EX: kid is not scared of voce that sounds like his fathers voice). Almost opposite of generalization. In classical conditioning no new behaviors occur. Only thing that occurs is a new conditional stimulus. Classical conditioning involves voluntary responses. EX: knee jerks when you hit it. EX2: fear- it is not under your control. Classical conditioning works with responded behaviors- behaviors that are not under your control Operant Conditioning is on of the most important sections in the text In order to develop new behavior, we mush go to a new type of learning called INSTRUMENTAL or OPERANT CONDITIONING. Very easy to understand compared to classical conditioning… explained by law of effect Know Thorndike’s Law of Effect-
- If you do something that turns out to be good, pleasing, satisfying, you are likely to do it again.
- If you do something that turns out to be bad, you are not likely to do that thing again. These are the things that “really stick in your mind.” EX: hand in car door. Know the changes that Skinner made when he defined reinforcement by its effect on behavior.
_Both positive and negative reinforcement will increase a rate of behavior_* Be able to define and recognize examples of the following operant conditioning phenomena: Shaping- reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response. Rat gets food as it approaches lever to press. Extinction- gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by reinforcers. Generalization- responding to a new stimulus as if it were the original. EX: cat responding to blender in kitchen for food. Discrimination- EX: cat only responds to can opener and not blender or drivers slow down on the high way when it is wet Punishment- occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response Know how people are punished even if their parents are total not punishers. Natural consequences of behavior are natural punishments that you learn on your own. Ex: a hangover Other punishing agents Know when Dr. B. considers punishment to be appropriate. Stop bad behaviors in the bud Eliminate dangerous behaviors (like aggression to Parent or sibling)- that could lead to injury or death Be able to define and recognize examples Intermittent Schedules of reinforcement Fixed ratio-a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses Variable ratio- the reinforcer is given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses Fixed interval- the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.
Variable interval- the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed For example, a fixed ratio-5; Lisa is paid a set amount of money when she completes sewing five shirts. Know their rate and pattern of response (Summarized in Figure 6.17) Be sure that you know the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment. (Page 249 and Figure 6.18)
- Negative reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthen because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. Ex: you rush home in winter to get out of cold or the rat presses lever to get out of shock. -punishment- a response is weakened when the tendency to make that response Know and understand The Illustrated Overview of the Three Types of Learning on pages 264-265. Know the Personal Application “Achieving Self-Control Through Behavior Modification. Omit Critical Thinking Application Know the practice questions and the end of the chapter. Chapter 7 Human Memory Be able to define and recognize examples of the four memory steps as outlined in class: Perception- attend, pay attention to material. EX: shaking hands and getting new persons name. Encoding- get material ready to store in brain. Most of our encoding tends to be verbal. EX: Dr. Johnson is tall, bald ext. poor encoding means memory will be lost. Storage- neural circuitry in the brain. Memory will be stored in brain Retrieval- gets it back out of brain. EX: remembering who someone is that you know you know. Ya know? Know the levels of processing as summarized by Figure 7. Incoming information processed at different levels Deeper processing= longer lasting memory codes Encoding level
- Serial recall- must remember material and its order. Recognition method: you just have to identify the correct answer. All on the choices are in front of you. EX: multiple choice. You can at get at least 25% by chance No matter which memory method we use we lose memory very quickly: discovered by Hermann Ebbinghaus. Uses nonsense syllables consents and a vowel. After learing nonsense syllables perfectly, within twenty minutes he lost half of what he remembers. Pattern (very sharp at forgetting at first). Forget less slowly after a long period of time. If you go to sleep, sleep slows down the amount of forgetting Essays and fill in the blank questions give you no help or hints. Relearning method- measure of retention that requires a subject to memorize info a second TIME TO DETERMING HOW MUCH TIME OR HOW MANY PRACTICE REIALS SECED BY HAVING LEARNED IT BEFORE Know about the organization and representation of memory. Specifically know and recognize examples of: Clustering- tendency to remember similar or related items in groups Conceptual Hierarchies- multilevel classification system based on common properties among items EX: minerals- metals- allows Schemas- an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event. Semantic Networks- consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts. Ex: longer the lines the less connected Connectionist Network and Parallel Processing Models- assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks. Be able to define and recognize examples of recall and recognition tests as discussed in class Be able to define and recognize examples of the following explanation of human forgetting: Ineffective coding- attributed to a lack of attention EX: ppl assume they know what a penny looks like. Cant forget something you never learned. Decay Theory- something happens to the memory trace: like an old color photo as it fades and blurs. Cant get memory back anymore. Questions
help you member stuff. EX: trees in the front yard… then u remember the picket fence ect. Interference Theory- proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material. Proactive Interference- occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information. Retroactive Interference- occurs when new info impairs the retention of previously learned information. Retrieval Failure- unable to remember something. Tip-of-the–tongue- theory. Encoding specificity principle- the value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory cody Transfer appropriate processing- occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the type of processing required by subsequent measure of retention. Motivated Forgetting- block memories by avoidance of tendencies. Forget things that one doesn’t want to remember Repression- keeping distressing thoughts and feelings in the unconscious. Know and understand the processes and structures involved with the Memory Trace. Know the Biochemistry of Memory- rna Know the role of Neural Circuitry in Memory- altercations in synapic transmission -specific memories may depend on localized neutral circuits in the brain… memories may create unique reusable pathways in the brain along which signals flow. -long term potential: is a long lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neutral pathway -LTD: how forgetting occurs ( a decrease in synaptic excitability) Know the brain structures in the Anatomy of Memory Know and recognize examples of: Retrograde amnesia- involves the loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia Anterograde- loss of memory for events that occur after the onset of amnesia Declarative- handles factual information. Recollection of words, definitions, names, dates, faces, concepts, and ideas.
Norms- provide information about where a score on a psych test ranks in relation to other scores on that test Reliability- measurement of the consistency of a test Validity- refers to the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure. EX; some test are not valid for placing kids in schools Content Validity- degree to which the content of a test is representative of the domain it’s supposed to cover. EX: info on a test that was not in the book or taught. Criterion-Related Validity- is estimated by correlating subjects scores on a test with their scores on an independent criterion of the trait assessed by the test. Ex: For example, imagine a hands-on driving test has been shown to be an accurate test of driving skills. By comparing the scores on the written driving test with the scores from the hands-on driving test, the written test can be validated by using a criterion related strategy in which the hands-on driving test is compared to the written test. Construct Validity- the extent to which evidence shows that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct. Know the basic history of intelligence testing as presented on pages 361- -mental age- he or she displayed the mental performance of a typical child at that age (binet- Simon) -intelligence quotient is a childs mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100 (lewis terman) -Wechsler improved Stanford- Bunet by creating an IQ test less dependent on subjects verbal ability. Got rid of intelligence quota and based his scoring scheme off of normal distribution Be sure that you know the following people by name and their contribution to intelligence. Galton---Hereditary Genius Binet---Mental Age Terman---Standford-Binet & IQ- mental age/ chronological age Wechsler---WAIS Know the various types of questions on the WAIS (Fig 9.6) Know how to compute an IQ score if you are the mental age and chronological age of a child. Table 9. 1 (MENTAL AGE/ CRONOLOGICAL AGE)* Know the importance of the normal distribution and its effect on the classification of intelligence and retardation levels (Figure 9.7) Be able to define Mental retardation and its implications (summarized in Table 9.2)
Be able to define Giftedness and understand its implications -Giftedness should not be equated with high intelligence and should not rely on IQ test to identify these kids -none of the 1500 were considered “geniuses” Heredity and Environment in Intelligence Be able to name, explain and recognize examples of Heredity’s contribution to intelligence. Know and understand the following sources of evidence for heredity. Twin Studies- quite similar in intelligence; fraternal twins correlation is much lower. Adoption Studies- adopted children indicate that there is more similarity between adopted children and their biological parents Heritability Estimates---particularly the Heritability Ratio- an estimate of the proportion of trait variability in a population that is determined by variations in genetic inheritance. EX: heritibilty of heaight= 90%, weight 85% Be able to name, explain and recognize examples of the environment’s contribution to intelligence. Know and understand the following sources of evidence for environmental contributions Adoption Studies- siblings reared together are more similar that siblings reared apart. Some children show resemblance to their foster parents. Unrelated children raised in same house have similar Iq’s. Deprived and enriched environment- adopted children scored higher on IQ tests than siblings or peers in disadvantaged homes. Improved environments= improved scores Home and schooling effects Generational change---know the Flynn Effect.- IQ tests have increased over the generations. A performance that would earn u a 100 now would have earned u a 120 in 1930- cause is believed to be environmental factors Understand the nature of the interaction between heredity and the environment. -heredity may set certain limits on intelligence and the environmental factors determine where individuals fall within these limits -reaction range: range genetically determined limits on IQ
