Learning Modules in Psychology, Lecture notes of Psychology

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MODULE 1

What is Psychology?

Consolidated by: Amina Thalia B. Germino, RPm PSY 301 Introduction to Psychology Module 1: What is Psychology 1 | P a g e INTRODUCTION:

This module discusses the definition of psychology and how psychology works in everyday lives. Also, it will discuss the origins of psychology and identify significant people and their contributions to the field. Next, this module discusses how psychologists view behavior and mental processes and explain the relationships between samples and populations in a scientific method. Lastly, it discusses the ethical standards that psychologist considers in doing research and practice with humans and animals, and the importance of the principles of critical thinking in psychology. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After the student read this module, they can:

1. Define psychology and describe what psychologist do.
2. Describe the origins of psychology and discuss people who have made significant contributions to the field.
3. Identify the theoretical perspectives from which psychologist today view behavior and mental processes.
4. Outline the scientific method and explain the relationship between samples and populations.
5. Explain how psychologist engage in research- including methods of observation, correlation, and experimentation to learn about behavior and mental processes. 6. Discuss ethical standards that govern psychological research and practice with humans and animals.
6. Identify and discuss principles of critical thinking. LEARNING CONTENT: What is Psychology? The term psychology derives from the Greek roots “ psyche”, meaning “soul” or “mind”, and “ logos” , meaning “word”. Psychology is literally the study of the mind or soul, and people defi ned it that way until the early 1900s. Around 1920, psychologists became disenchanted with the idea of studying the mind. First, research deals with what we observe, and the mind is unobservable. Second, talking about “the mind” implies it is a thing or object. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. PSY 301 Introduction to Psychology Module 1: What is Psychology 2 | P

Module 1: What is Psychology 3 | P a g e 12.Organizational psychologists 13.Human factors psychologists 14.Consumer psychologists 15.Health psychologists Historical Foundation of Psychology Aristotle- Although he lived 2.400 years ago, the Greek philosopher Aristotle made many contributions to contemporary psychology:

• He argued that science could rationally treat only information gathered by the senses.
• He enumerated the so-called five senses
• He explored the nature of cause and effect
• He pointed that the people differ from other living in their capacity for rational thought
• He outlined laws of association that have lain at the heart of learning theory for more than two millennia.
• He also declared that people are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain- a view that remains as current today as it was an ancient Greece. Socrates- Lived 2,500 years ago
• Proposed the expression “Know thyself”
• Suggested we should rely on rational thought and introspection- careful examination of one’s thoughts and emotions—to gain self-knowledge.
• Pointed out that people are social creatures who influence one another. Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887)
• Published “Elements of Psychophysics” which showed how physical events stimulate psychological sensations and perceptions.
• Showed how we can scientifically measure the effect of these events.

PSY 301 Introduction to Psychology Module 1: What is Psychology 4 | P a g e STRUCTURALISM Wilhelm Wundt ( 1832-1920)

• Founder of Structuralism
• Attempted to break down conscious experience into sensations such as sight and taste, emotions, and mental imagery.
• Make plans for the creation of a program of experimental psychology. FUNCTIONALISM William James (1842-1910)
• He wrote the first modern psychology textbook in 1890.
• He wrote, “I wished, by treating Psychology like a natural science, to help her become one.”
• Functionalism focused on behavior as well as the mind or consciousness.
• James was also influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution.
• Proposed that adaptive behavior patterns are learned and maintained. • “Habit is the enormous flywheel of society” BEHAVIORISM John Broadus Watson (1878-1958)
• Founder of American behaviorism
• Watson believed that if psychology were to be a natural science, like physics or chemistry, it must limit itself to observable, measurable events—that is, to behavior alone—hence the term behaviorism.
• Behaviorism focuses on learning observable behavior. B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

free to choose and as being responsible for choosing ethical conduct.

4. **Psychodynamic Perspective
5. Perspective on Learning** -Social cognitive theory a school of psychology in the behaviorist tradition that includes cognitive factors in the explanation and prediction of behavior; formerly termed social learning theory. PSY 301 Introduction to Psychology Module 1: What is Psychology 6 | P a g e
   6. Sociocultural Perspective - the view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in behavior and mental processes. Gender- the culturally defined concepts of masculinity and femininity 1940- Kenneth Bancroft Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark conducted research showed the negative effect of school segregation on African American children. Jorge Sanchez was among the first to show how intelligence tests are culturally biased to the disadvantage of Mexican American children. Richard Suinn studies mental health and the development of identity among Asians and Asian Americans Mary Whiton Calkins introduced the methods of paired associates to study memory, discovered the primacy and recency effects, and engaged in research into the role of the frequency of repetition in the vividness of memories. She become the president of the American Psychological Association. Mary Salter Ainsworth revolutionized our understanding of attachment between parents and children by means of her cross-cultural studies. HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDY BEHAVIOR AND MENTAL PROCESSES? -Psychologists use the scientific method to decide what kind of evidence they need and how to pursue it. Scientific method- an organized way if using experience and testing ideas to expand and refine knowledge Hypothesis- in psychology, a specific statements about behavior or mental processes that is tested through research Correlation an association or a relationship among variables, as we might find between height and weight, or between study habits and school grades.

Selection Factors A source of bias that may occur in research findings when participants are allowed to choose for themselves a certain treatment in a scientific study Sample part of a population Population a complete group of interest to researchers, from which a sample is drawn Random sample a sample drawn so that each member of a population has an equal change of being selected to participate PSY 301 Introduction to Psychology Module 1: What is Psychology 7 | P a g e Stratified sample a sample drawn so that identified subgroups in the population are represented proportionally in the sample Volunteer bias a source of bias or error in research reflecting the prospect that people who offer to participate in research studies different systematically from people who do not METHODS OF RESEARCH Case study a carefully drawn biography that may be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, and psychological tests. Survey a method of scientific investigation in which a large sample of people answer questions about their attitudes or behavior Naturalistic observation a scientific method in which organisms are observed in their natural environments Correlational method a mathematical method of determining whether one variable increases or decreases as another variable increases or decreases Correlational coefficient a number between +1.00 and -1.00 that expresses the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables Experiment a scientific method that seeks to confirm cause-and-effect relationships by introducing independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables. Independent variable a condition in a scientific study that is manipulated so that its effects may be observed Dependent variables a measure of an assumed effect of an independent variable Experimental groups in experiments, groups whose members obtain the treatment Control groups in experiments, groups whose members do not obtain the treatment,

5. Be cautious in drawing conclusions from evidence **6. Be especially skeptical of anecdotes

7. Consider alternative interpretations of research evidence** 8. Do not oversimplify 9. Do not overgeneralize 10.Apply critical thinking to all areas of life PSY 301 Introduction to Psychology Module 1: What is Psychology 9 | P a g e MODULE ACTIVITY DIRECTION: Imagine you have been assigned the task of sitting on an Institutional review board (IRB) and have been asked to consider the following research proposals. Each proposal involves ethical issues. Read each proposal and answer the questions below. Proposal One Tyrone wants to study the impact of watching sexually suggestive/explicit television on people’s attitudes toward sex. He plans to test ninth graders because he believes they are still young enough to be highly impressionable. He will solicit volunteers to come after school. Half will be assigned to watch one hour of sexually explicit clips from a cable TV show while the other half will view an hour of clips from the same show that deal with nonsexual topics. After watching the TV shows, all participants will fill out a questionnaire about the attitudes toward sex. Questions: What additional information might you want to know about the study in order to decide whether or not it should be approved?

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What are the benefits that might result from this research? What are the

potential harms?

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If you were on an IRB reviewing this proposal, what would your recommendation be?

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PSY 301 Introduction to Psychology Module 1: What is Psychology 10 | P a g e Proposal Two Freya is interested in whether listening to music while working out makes people exercise harder. She plans to ask college students to come to the gym and run on a treadmill for half an hour either while listening to music or in silence. The dependent measure will be the number of miles run in that time period. Questions: What additional information might you want to know about the study in order to decide whether or not it should be approved?

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What are the benefits that might result from this research? What are the potential harms?

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If you were on an IRB reviewing this proposal, what would your recommendation be?

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PSY 301 Introduction to Psychology Module 1: What is Psychology 12 | P a g e