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Lecture summary notes midterm 1, Lecture notes of Abnormal Psychology

University of Western Ontario Abnormal Psychology

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2015/2016

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Animal Behaviour Lecture Summary Notes- Midterm 1

Lecture 1

Scientific Method

•Deduction: FIRST come up with the hypothesis, THEN collect the data and do the test

• Idea data

• Informative

• Induction: look at the data AFTER the fact, guess what the answer was

• Ex. In the news people have biases

Observation

•

Hypothesis

• “If” statement

•May be wrong, but must be falsified

•Ultimate hypotheses: WHY

• Fitness consequences

• Why does it do this, why is it one way and not the other

•Proximate hypotheses: HOW

• How do things happen

Predictions

• “Then” statement

• Testable

•Test statement follows the prediction

Adaptive: how well/functional some trait/phenotype behaviour is at increasing fitness for an

individual

• Can recognize something that is adapted by their fitness consequences

Currency : measuring fitness

Maximized and optimized fitness: there are tradeoffs, cant always be maximized because there

is an expense

• Ex. Lifespan

• Tradeoff of lifespan may be early vs late reproductive success

•Reproducing now may inhibit reproducing later

• The investment may be optimized so that lifetime reproductive success can be

maximized

•Natural selection maximizes fitness

• Multiple generations, phenotype, food availability

• CANNOT get Natural selection without adaptation

■Adaptations are a consequence of Natural selection

• CAN get a change in phenotype

• Selection operates at the level of the individual or below (

Direct fitness: measured through offspring

Indirect fitness: measured through number of relatives one has helped reproduce

• Investing in your own offspring may have a cost to indirect fitness

• Ratios between direct and indirect are optimized so the total fitness is maximized

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Animal Behaviour Lecture Summary Notes- Midterm 1

Lecture 1 Scientific Method

(^) Deduction: FIRST come up with the hypothesis, THEN collect the data and do the test
- Idea data
- Informative
Induction: look at the data AFTER the fact, guess what the answer was
- Ex. In the news people have biases Observation

Hypothesis

“If” statement
(^) May be wrong, but must be falsified
Ultimate hypotheses : WHY
- Fitness consequences
- Why does it do this, why is it one way and not the other
Proximate hypotheses: HOW
- How do things happen

Predictions

“Then” statement
Testable
- (^) Test statement follows the prediction

Adaptive : how well/functional some trait/phenotype behaviour is at increasing fitness for an individual

Can recognize something that is adapted by their fitness consequences Currency : measuring fitness Maximized and optimized fitness: there are tradeoffs, cant always be maximized because there is an expense
Ex. Lifespan
Tradeoff of lifespan may be early vs late reproductive success
(^) Reproducing now may inhibit reproducing later
The investment may be optimized so that lifetime reproductive success can be maximized
Natural selection maximizes fitness
Multiple generations, phenotype, food availability
CANNOT get Natural selection without adaptation ■ Adaptations are a consequence of Natural selection
CAN get a change in phenotype
Selection operates at the level of the individual or below ( Direct fitness : measured through offspring Indirect fitness : measured through number of relatives one has helped reproduce
Investing in your own offspring may have a cost to indirect fitness
Ratios between direct and indirect are optimized so the total fitness is maximized

Natural Selection : Tendency to self-replicate, imperfectly , leading to variants that compete for representation in a limited environment and if the qualities that confer success are heritable then there will be evolution via natural selection

Self replicate
(^) Imperfect
Variance
Limited environment
Hereditary

Summary so far

Look at behaviour as an evolutionarily-informative phenotype
Understand the proximate mechanism and ultimate function of behaviours by posing hypotheses
Apply the scientific method (deduction) to testing among alternative hypotheses via predictions and tests
Consider fitness as a currency for adaptive function, and likewise consider natural selection as the mechanism that tends to maximize this function
Think about possible levels of selection , and which one is most likely to explain adaptive variation

Evolution Biological Evolution : change in allele frequency overtime

Selection isn’t necessary for evolutionary change; can get allele frequency change overtime without selection (Eg. drift)
(^) Adaptive evolution can only arise under selection
Evolution doesn’t need a selective pressure to occur (languages, political systems, relgion) - Smaller regions are more likely to NOT be passed on - Cultural evolution is a way to transpose the generic way of thinking to other things that are not genes onto memes

Biology : the study of life

All living things that ever were, not just humans
The diversity, antiquity, unity of life
(^) Life is very uniformed- there is so much homology How does life emerge?
Dawkins would say “ life emerges from the non random survival of randomly varying replicates”

Lecture 3 Summary so far

Conceptualize the essence of natural selection as a drive of adaptive evolution
Recognize that organic evolution is simply change in allele frequency over time
(^) Recognize that selection is therefore not required for evolution, but selection is required for adaptive evolution
Take responsibility for the field of biology- literally, the study of life - and be able to explain how natural selection works

From an adaptive perspective..

If monogamy enables mate guarding and certainty of paternity, then male removal should lead to extra- pair mating by the female
(^) -female was selected to be monogamous or promiscuous
selection favours monogamy in males
conflict in selective forces
condition dependent selection

From historical perspective..

if monogamy is simply ancestral- i.e. praire voles are monogamous because their ancestors were, then we simply expect the ancestor of Prarire voles to be monogamous

From a sensory perspective..

(^) if monogamy is motivated by reward stimuli in the brain, we expect an association with the hormone vasopressin
can manipulate pair bonding- expose male or females to pair repeatedly less or more
can be manipulate and induce or destruct areas of the brain and manipulate; causative

From a developmental perspective.. -if monogamy develops through gene x environment interactions, then we expect avpr1a genotype to predict behaviours

Lecture 5 Summary

Nobel Laureate Nik Tinbergen as a historical co-founder of ethology
The four levels of analysis and more or less how to operate within in level
Relation between Ernst mayr’s proximate and ultimate types of questions and Tingergens levels
(^) The adaptive significance of conspicuous traits in terms of direct fitness consequences to focal individuals
Vole biology, in terms of breeding systems and associated traits like monogamy, mate choice, mate guarding, certainty of paternity etc and the concept of evolutionary conflict

Evolution is dynamic , with static (changing) endpoints

Case Study: White-crowned sparrow song

6 individual male birds singing from different regions, have their own dilects Developmental Perspective
if dialects develop through gene x environment interactions, then we expect genotype or social environment to predict song structure
Social environment interaction
Has genetic capacity to learn a song
Gross black box mechanism; if you socio isolate the bird, force it to listen to tape recording of song, then it will learn it
If you provide it with a socially enriched version of the song, then it will learn it better

Sensory perspective

If dialects are controlled by the brain, then surgical destruction of song brain components (HVC etc) should inhibit dialect learning abilities

Historical perspective

If dialect- learning in ancestral, then this ability should be concentrated on phylogenetic trees
We know of three family of birds that can learn song

Adaptive Perspective

If dialects are adaptive to local environments, then their performance should vary with environment
(^) Function and fitness consequence
If variation has fitness consequence, expect it to perform differently in different environments
If you change the environment from open, then modify the dialect in different places

Case Study- Social Biology of langurs

Presbytis entellus
Langurs live in social groups of mostly females and usually one dominant, breeding male
At age, young males leave their natal group, form packs of mostly unrelated males, and become nomadic until they can usurp a dominant to join a group of breeding females
(^) The males reproductive life is short, relative to that of females
Female based groups are long lived and relatively stable
Females related to each other form a social group that is stable
When males join a group, three things can happen

Eg. Used a flute associated with food
- Predictions that it will become more active Seeing colour
Von Frsisch demonstrated that honeybees have colour vision
(^) Honey bees
Got pollen from the flower
Using colours that are evolutionary likely for bees to recognize, will be more functionally appropriate
Bees see uv spectrum colours
Colour sand flowers have coevolved to the visual acuity with insects
Flower is designed like a helicopterpad with arrows pointing to the middle
Plant doesn’t get anything from the interaction
Bees get the nectar from the plats Tinbergen
(^) Wasps
Altered the landmarks around the wasps nest entrance when she was out foraging
Noticed that when the territory was altered, the wasps remembered the way the old burrow was set up and tried to find the entrance
It hovers over before it leaves so it gets a visual picture of what it needs to find
Watched stickleback fish and noticed that when there was red symbols the fish freaked out
Stickleback males laid claim to certain parts of the aquarium, excluded other males
When introducing a female, there was a zig zag dance of courtship movement of the male
Males showed the females to the nest entrance
(^) Female enters nest, trembles nose against the tail and spawns
Red belly male= triggers attacking response
Swollen belly female = males zig zag dance around
In birds, the chicks peak at their parent’s beak causing them to release halfeaten food
Lower red spot on mandible of the parental bird
Yellow was ineffective at getting the chicks to peck
Contrast was important aspect of the signal

Kin Theory Natural Selection

(^) Self dissertating
Selected to out compete other entities
Selfish ; replicating entities
- Self -preserved, looking out or its best interest
Individualism with selfishness is prevalent in theory
Selection must promote individualism and selfishness above any collective or cooperative behaviour and above selflessness
Altruistic; some individual is giving up something to help another individual

Altruism

Darwin
Trees compete against each other for sunlight in canopy
- That’s why trees are taller, they need to be and they are selected for to be
Not everything is explained by altruism- 97% is
(^) Altruism; contributing to an individual’s direct fitness
To look at individual fitness, count the number of offspring someone had
Female is related to her own offspring 50% - descendant kin
- She is selected to invest in her own offspring
- Parental care
If she decided that instead of having 2 offspring, she wold only have one and put reinvest the energy to help her sister have more offspring
Alloparenting : divesting from own parental care, to help individual have offspring than she otherwise would
Reproductive Altruism
(^) Would altruism be selected?
- No relation ■ If the two females are not related at all, no genes identical by descent then it is unlikely that the gene for altruism is going to be carried to other individual she is helping ■ Has a cost, no benefit
- Related ■ Focusing on an allele from a random locus, would they be identical by descent? ■ Probability allows for potential altruism to be selected for individually ■ (^) Depending on the degree their realted, theres a high probability that they are passing on the G gene indirectly
Have a focal individual (A) who is normally sexually reproducing
Minor error in an allele that affects her timing and target of parental care
Mutation towards altruism is passed on directly to her offspring
- Allele is suddenly expressed (3) and other offspring inherits the allele but doesn’t express it
- EXTREME altruism with sterility or self-sacrifice renders direct fitness to 0
- No offspring, no direct fitness
Allele for altruism is now more frequent

Inclusive Fitness

From a genes eye view, has advantageous to help two siblings (r=0.5) survive and reproduce as it is to help ourselves (r=1.0)

Impact of inclusive fitness theory

Hamiltons formalization of Haldane’s idea, shifted the unit of selection from the level of the individual to the level of the gene
Gave rise to the genes eye view of natural selection
Offered a solution to what had previously been unexplainable-namely, the evolution of selfless behaviour
Hamiltons idea was initially ignored, but then its influence grew exponentially
Now referred to as
- Selfish gene theory
- Inclusive fitness theory
- Kin selection theory

Summary

The Classic Darwinism is a very good starting point to understand diversity and assumes direct fitness is maximized by natural selection
Hamilton’s theory of inclusive fitness introduces the indirect fitness quotient, which can be released by directing help towards reproducing relatives
Inclusive fitness is the sum of direct and indirect fitness of the focal individual, and is, in reality, what natural selection maximizes
Inclusive fitness theory, otherwise known as kin theory, identifies the gene as the ultimate unit of selection , and ironically, explains the evolution of selfless traits
Darwinism can therefore be regarded as a special case of Hamiltonism
(^) Historians can tract the idea of indirect fitness and the concept of genetic worth to Haldane (and others)

Indirect fitness and the evolution of selfless behaviour

The indirect fitness quotient can explain the conditional evolution of selfless behaviour, but what are the conditions?
Under what conditions will G increase in frequency?
C<rb
- Benefit is greater than cost
- R is the degree their related to each other
(^) If inequality is true, then it predicts that altruism will evolve
- Gene for altruism will increase in frequency
- Sociobiology is the field that considers the fitness

Altruism - actor reduces their direct fitness, potentially impacts the recipient
Cooperation : if the individual performs action that has direct fitness benefit to both individuals and mutualism
Selfishness; direct benefit to the actor, direct fitness cost to the recipient
Spite : bad for both the actor and the recipient Recipient Actor + -

Co-operation -c<rb -c<0b

Selfishness -c<r(-b) -c<

Altruism C<rb

Spite C<(-r)(-b)

Relatedness: Diploids

Parents are related to child by half
Children are related to parents by half
Children are related to their siblings by 0.
It is possible to be unrelated to a sibling if you happen to get other allele at every single locus
C=
- (^) Directed to brother, would have direct fitness benefit to allow that allele to evolve
- Sibling altriusm b=
- Cousin altruism b=

Relatedness: Haplodiploids

Females are diploid, in control
Males are haploid
- Genetically deficient
- (^) Males arise from unfertilized eggs, that’s why they only have one copy
Females are related to daughters by 0.5 because they are produced sexually by mating with the male even though its haploid
Father only has one copy of every allele to give, so no choice but gives its entire genetic compliment to his daughters - Related to daughters by r=1.

If r=0, 0 will always be bigger than a negative number
Higher value of r, the more related the individual is, the less likely the inequality is to be satisfied
Kinship puts a break on selfish exploitation
(^) Evolution of neptisim in humans
Tend to favour relatives- not exploit

Spite

Negative for negative
Actor has direct fitness cost
Recipient (white) has direct fitness cost
It’s a cost, not benefit
Only way spite can evolve is if r is negative
Definition of r depends how you define relatedness
(^) If you set baseline to 0, then its possible to be particularly unelated to individual
If you are harming/ exploiting direct fitness of individuals that are unrelated to you, then as a consequence your not exploiting individuals that are related to you

Evolution of cooperation via Hamilton’s rule

‘cost’ to self is actually a benefit, c=negative
benefit to recipient, b=positive
e.g. cooperative defence in nesting bluegills
(^) -c<(r)(b)
- always true, even for non relatives
recast to explain co-operation
cost to self is actually a benefit, so c is negative
population evolves readily
cooperation among unrelated individuals of a species can evolve- cooperation
because interactants don’t need to be related at all, or need to be the same species ( mutualism ; distinguish intra from inter specific populations)
Any cooperative defence or surveillance, hunting cooperation is everywhere and easy to evolve
(^) Many other examples: cooperative defence, hunting, vigilance, brood care etc
- Can be immediate pay of
- Can be delayed pay off

Can be between species

Summary

Hamilton’s rule rb>c provides a powerful predictor for social evolution
First, it states that a gene for altruism can increase in frequency if it has the net effect of making copies of itself via non-descendant relatives
Second, the rule can be re-cast to predict the conditional evolution of all types of social behavior , not just altruism 4.Even though the rule invokes indirect fitness, the currency of c and b is direct fitness (of the actor and receiver, respectively)
The evolutionary understanding of terms like ‘selfishness’ and ‘alturistic’ etc, differ from everyday English usage- they describe the fitness effect , not any conscious intent or state of mind
All three parameters in the rule are important- but understanding the role of r is particularly enlighten

Towards non-relatives

relatedness to non-relatives, r=zero
‘cost’ to self is actually a benefit, c=negative
‘benefit’ to recipient is actually a cost, b=negative
-c< (0)(-b)
- always true
if you are going to exploit someone’s fitness, best to do it to non-relative

Towards relatives

relatedness to relative, r=positive
‘cost’ to self is actually a benefit, c=negative
‘benefit’ to recipient is actually a cost, b=negative
-c<(+r)(-b)
- conditional
cost to self, c=positive
‘benefit’ to recipient is actually a cost, b=negative
c<(?)(-b)
- (^) under what conditions can spite evolve
Wilsonian spite; when spite indirectly causes a positively related individual to prosper
Hamiltonian spite; when spite disproportionally harms a negatively related recipient

Social What does it mean to be ‘truly’ social

Individuals of the same species cooperate in caring for the young
There is a reproductive division of labour, with more or less sterile individuals working on behalf of fecund nest mates
There is an overlap of at least two generations in the stages capable of contributing of colony labour

Degrees of sociality

All selected indirectly through the queen
Genes that encode those traits- behavioural rules its following are passed on by queen
No Darwinian selection on these traits
Behavioural rules its following are passed on by the queen
(^) Make fermented gardens to harvest the spores of fungi to eat the fungi
Whole adaptive complex behaviour evolved by indirect selection

Summary

Humans are social, surely, but reproductive altruism is not pronounced i.e. humans have not evolved reproductive versus non-reproductive castes
To be truly social- or eusocial, is to have a reproductively altruistic caste , among other characters
Eusociality is therefore a composite character that has evolved multiple times in insects, particularly in the haplodiploid hymenoptera , but also in terites (isopteran) thirps (thysanoptera). There are also eusocial mammals (two spp. Of naked mole rates)

Division of labour , an economic principle, allows for ‘economies of scale’, which helps to explain the productivity and industriousness of social insects
Further, all the qualities in the subfertile (or even sterile) caste, including subfertility itself, are passed on through the reproducing relative, though she clearly does not express them
Social evolution can lead to obligate dependency of the less –fertile caste

Relatedness, g

Other things being equal, relatedness is the ‘genetic worth’ of one individual to another
The relatedness of an individual to you is a measure of how similar the genes that are passed on to those that you pass on
Relatedness is a parameter
gYX= genetic worth of Y to X
- X is focal
- The relative probability of one of X’s alleles being passed on by Y as opposed to Y itself
In what way can the gene get itself into the next generation and can influence behavior
gXY= genetic worth of X to Y
- (^) Y is focal
- The relative probability of one of Y’s alleles being passed on by X as opposed to Y itself
Can be expressed as a ratio of probabilities of identity by descent (IBD) of genes derived from one individual from those of another
gYX= FYX =/ F (^) XX
gYX= FXY =/ F (^) YY
FXY = The IBD expected on average between an allele from X an allele from Y
FXX = the IBD expected on average between alleles in gametes from X
FYY = the^ IBD expected on average between alleles in gametes from Y

Identity by descent

Two genes (alleles) are identical by descent (IBD) if they arose from the same pre- existing allele [also, one allele could have descended from the other]
The alleles in a family have been numbered. Alleles 5 and 7 are IBD, but other allelic combinations in the progeny are not
Between generations, alleles 4 and 8 are IBD, as are some other combinations

Half-Sibling Pedigree

Two offspring X and Y
Share a single parent; mom, don’t share a father

calculating relatedness

half sib example, assuming X is not inbred
(^) gyx =Fxy/F (^) xx
=0.125/0.
=0.

Full Sibling Pedigree Calculating relatedness

assuming X is not inbred
(^) relevant to kin when thinking certain traits will evolve indirectly

Notice that gyx=Fxy/F (^) xx is similar to b=COV (^) xy/s (^2) x
Just as a regression of X on Y can be asymmetric with Y on X, the relatedness of Y to X can be asymmetric with X to Y
Implication: you can be less related to someone than they are to you
- (^) Eg. In haplodiploid systems the mom is related to the son by 50%, son is related to mom by 100%
- Can lead to evolutionary conflict by individuals acting in ways that maximizes their genetic fitness
- Want to exploit one person, the other may want to help
How?
- If Y is inbred and x is not, then their not going to be symmetric in their genetic worth to each other
- One will value one direction, other will value reverse direction

Half Sibling, inbred Calculating relatedness

half sib, with X himself being inbred
parents are siblings

Fx comes into importance
(^) Fyy is not inbred; so inbreed coefficient (F (^) x) remains =
Probability of IBD of the 2 alleles is the exact same thing as the Fxy between parents
Inbreeding coefficient is the same as the F (^) xy of the parents
Between two normal outbred parents, the Fxy would be =0.
Can make a difference or determining behavioural outcomes

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