Developmental Psychology and Childbirth: From Preconception to Infancy - Prof. Landers-Po, Study notes of Psychology

Download Developmental Psychology and Childbirth: From Preconception to Infancy - Prof. Landers-Po and more Study notes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! 12/01/2009 17:17:00 ← Exploring Lifespan Development: a pattern of change involving growth and decline  Human development is interdisciplinary o Ex. Biology, History, Psychology, Sociology, Anthropology, and Neuroscience  The Field of Human Development o Scientific/research based o Applied ← Developmental changes are a result of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes  Biological  physical  Cognitive  patterns of thinking; how complexly we think  Socioemotional  interactions with others in society  All are interlinked and interrelated ← Many forces influence development:  Sociocultural & environmental contexts o Culture, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, gender, family/parenting, health and well-being*, education* o Ex. Raising children in Africa compared to United States  Historical circumstances o Historical contexts & life events affect human development o Ex. Women’s rights; sexual revolution, 9/11  Life events or unusual circumstances impacting on the specific individual ← Characteristics of the Lifespan Perspective  Development is: o 1. Multidimensional  affected by different blend of biological, psychological, and social forces o 2. Lifelong  physical, cognitive, and emotional/social o 3. Multidirectional  growth, stability, and decline in all stages of life  Ex. Developing one skill  giving up refining of other skills o 4. Highly plastic o 5. Influenced by multiple interacting forces  Age-graded influences  events strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last  Ex. Walking after first birthday  History-graded influences  why people born around same time (cohorts) tend to be alike  Nonnormative influences  irregular events that happen to one or few people and do not follow predictable timetable Period of Development  Prenatal  conception to birth  Infancy & Toddlerhood  birth to 2 years  Early Childhood  2 to 6 years  Middle Childhood  6 to 11 years  Adolescence  Early Adulthood  Middle Adulthood  Late Adulthood ← Is Chronological Age Becoming Less Important?  The ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development  Factors in resilience o 1. Personal characteristics o 2. Warm parental relationship o 3. Social support outside of family  teacher, neighbor o 4. Community resources and opportunities  mentor, YMCA ← Theories of Child & Human Development  Hall & Gesell – The Normative Period o Normative approach  measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individuals, and age-related averages are computed to represent typical development  Binet & Simon– Mental Testing Movement o Intelligence test at Stanford University  Psychosexual Theory: Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality o Emphasizes how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives o Id  largest portion; biological desires o Ego  conscious, rational part; mediates Id and Superego o Superego  conscience; societal norms  Freud’s Psychosexual Stages o Oral (Age Birth-1)  thumb sucking; bottle o Anal (Age 1-3)  toilet training o Phallic (Age 3-6)  interest in genitals; superego develops o Latency (Age 6-puberty)  no conflict; same sex friendships o Genital (Puberty+)  interest in interacting with others  Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages  ego acquires attitude and skills that make individual an active, contributing member of society o Basic trust v. mistrust (Birth to 1 year) o Autonomy v. shame and doubt (1-3 years) o Initiative v. guilt (3-6 years) o Industry v. inferiority (6-11 years) o Identity v. role confusion (Adolescence) o Intimacy v. isolation (Early adulthood) o Generativity v. stagnation (Middle adulthood) o Ego integrity v. despair (Late adulthood)  Behaviorism & Social Learning o Behaviorism  directly observable events – stimuli and responses  Classical Conditioning (John Watson)  stimulus – response; scaring baby with rat and loud sound  Pavlov  dog and bell  Tabula rasa  blank slate  Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)  reinforcers and punishments  Pigeons operating missiles o Social Learning (Bandura)  modeling; imitation or observational learning  Warmth of hot coffee triggers comfort and good mood o Behavior modification  combines conditioning and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses  Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development  children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world o Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years)  exploring physically o Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years)  representing world through speech  Cannot understand depth or volume o Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)  predict outcomes throughout world; no able to think in abstractions  Describe themselves with concrete adjectives like tall or pretty o Formal Operational Stage (11-15 years through adulthood)  understand abstract qualities  Describe themselves with abstract adjectives like nice or funny 12/01/2009 17:17:00 € Biological and Environmental Foundations (Chapter 2) - cont.  DNA Replication o DNA contains genes o DNA organizes itself into chromosomes before division occurs o When cell division occurs (called mitosis or meiosis), the cell duplicates the genetic code  Difference between Mitosis & Meiosis o Mitosis  Process by which most cells (somatic line, or ‘body’ cells) divide  DNA replication & division creates 2 diploid cells o Meiosis  Process by which cells that become gametes (germ-line, or reproductive cells) divide  Process restricted to gonads (testicals & ovaries)  DNA replication & division creates 4 haploid cells o Chromosomes, Cells, and Sex: Terminology  Zygote – sperm and ova united  Gametes – sex cells: sperm or ova  Autosomes – 22 pairs of chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes  Sex chromosomes – 23rd pair of chromosomes; determines sex: XX = female, XY = male o Twins  Fraternal/Dizygotic  Two zygotes, or fertilized ova  Identical/Monozygotic  One zygote that divides into two individuals o Alleles  Different forms of the same gene  Appear at the same place on both chromosomes in a pair  One inherited from each parent  Homozygous – the two alleles are alike (2 alleles for blue eyes)  Heterozygous – the alleles differ (1 for blue eyes, 1 for brown eyes)  Incomplete dominance  Both alleles are expressed, resulting in combined or intermediate trait  Ex. sickle cell trait  Monogenic Inheritance  Your phenotype is determined by a single gene  Ex. eye color, ability to curl tongue  Polygenic Inheritance  Your phenotype is determined by multiple genes which are additive or interactive  Most genes are polygenic  Ex. height, skin color o Chromosomal Abnormalities  1. Down Syndrome  Problems with the 21st chromosome – extra chromosome made during meiosis, creating three chromosomes 12/01/2009 17:17:00 € Biological and Environmental Foundations (Chapter 2) - cont.  The Epigenetic Framework  development of resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment o Levels: environment, behavior, and gene expression o Bidirectional exchanges  Genetic-Environment Correlation  our genes influence environments to which we are exposed o Passive correlation – parents pass on genes and determine environment o Evocative correlation – evokes certain responses from environment o Active correlation – choosing environments  Niche-picking  tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity  Environmental Contexts for Development o Family o Socioeconomic status o Neighborhoods, towns, and cities o Cultural context  Socioeconomic Status (SES)  years of education, prestige of and skill required by one’s job, and income o Access to resources in society  affects all aspects of our development o Statistics – 13% of Americans are poor o Groups more likely to be poor  Children (17-18%)  Women  Parents under age 25 with young children  Elderly living alone, especially women  Ethnic minorities o Family functioning  Timing and duration of family life cycle  Values and expectations  Parents’ involvement  Communication and discipline styles  Children’s cognitive development o Extended families  Three or more generations living together  More common in many minority cultures  Benefits – assistance, help, provide support  Individualist vs. Collectivist Societies o Individualist  View self as separate from other people  Focus on personal needs and goals – ME team o Collectivist  View self as part of a group  Stress group goals over individual goals – me TEAM ← Ch.3  Conception and Implantation o Ovulation – releasing egg  Woman is born with 400,000 eggs but releases 400 eggs in lifetime o Fertilization – sperm meeting egg  Egg has 12 hours to live after being released o First weeks after conception  Embryonic development  First three weeks are most hazardous for zygote  1/3 to ½ of all fertilized zygotes die  Risk factors  Inheritance of defective chromosomes  Down syndrome  Errors in mitosis after fertilization  Implantation errors  Genetic screening – down syndrome, fragile x syndrome  Dental care - poor dental hygiene = increased risk for preterm labor and birth  Medications? – cut back on or change certain medications  Chronic health conditions - diabetes, heart disease, hypertension, seizure disorder, advanced maternal age (35 yrs old)  Environmental and Workplace Issues o Teratogens o Cigarette smoke o Illicit drugs  Don’t forget the male contribution o Limited data o Genetics o Alcohol, drugs, smoking  Choice of birth place and provider o Birth center vs. hospital vs. home o Obstetrician vs. midwife  Desired labor support o Pain management options – natural birth, epidural, sedatives ← What are teratogens?  An agent or factor that causes malformation of an embryo  Potential teratogens: o Alcohol (fetal alcohol syndrome) o Medications: anti-seizure, antidepressants, thyroid drugs, thalidomide, accutane (isotretinoin) o Illicit drugs (withdrawal syndrome, behavioral effects) o Radiation (DNA damage) o Occupational chemical exposures o Toxoplasmosis – cat litter o Rubella o Cytomegalovirus o Syphilis ← Maternal Anatomical and Physiological Changes  Pregnancy affects: o Posture o Digestion o Blood volume o Breathing rate  Woman should expect: o Increased urinary frequency o Stretch marks o Emotional lability o Nesting instincts  1st Trimester – initial conception to 12 weeks o “Period of adjustment”  2nd Trimester – 12-24 weeks o “Period of radiant health”  3rd Trimester – 24 weeks to birth o “Period of watchful waiting” ← Fetal Development 6-7 weeks  Placenta begins to form  Fetus weighs 0.001 oz  Uterus = small orange  Head is the largest portion  Internal organs formed  Heart is beating (since end of 4th wk)  Baby is floating amniotic sac  Arm/leg buds w/finger/toe buds  “Fetus” at 7 wks ← Fetal Development 12 weeks  Placenta fully developed and supporting the pregnancy  Uterus = grapefruit  Baby has fingernails/toenails  Can flex fingers/toes  Eyelids are fused  Legs grow slower than arms  Start of Labor o Not clear what initiates labor, probably a combination of maternal and fetal hormonal interactions o “Lightening” – baby descends down to pelvic region o Pelvic pressure o Slowing of fetal movement o “Bloody show” (loss of mucus plug) o Low back pain, low abdominal cramping o Cervix is effacing, but little dilation past 2-3 cm  Early labor o Talking, laughing, joking o Does not take full focus to deal with contractions o Cervix is effacing, dilation to 4-5 cm  Active Labor o Labor becomes more “serious” o Contractions require full focus o Pain medication may be requested o Good evidence that labor support during this stage results in a feeling of satisfaction with the birth experience o Cervix dilates from 5-10 cm o 8-10 cm is point of “transition”; requires coping skills of “steel” o Now fully dilated and descent of baby begins  Latent Phase of Labor o Often ignored in many obstetrical settings o No need to start pushing as soon as complete dilation is achieved o Unmedicated births – mother often rests as contractions space out o Medicated (epidural) births ← Cervical Effacement & Dilation  Cervix – opening to the uterus  Effacement - gradual thinning, shortening and drawing up of the cervix measured in percentages from 0 to 100%  Dilation – gradual opening of the cervix measured in centimeters form 0 to 10 cms.  Primigravida – uterus with first baby  Multipara – uterus after many babies ← The Birth (2nd Stage)  Fetal head descends into the birth canal  Head rounds the Curve of Carus (most difficult part)  Head is seen crowing at the opening of the vagina  “2 steps forward, 1 step back”  More and more of the head will emerge with each push  Once the head is born, it!s all over (usually...) ← Separation of Mom and Baby ← Delivery of the Placenta (3rd Stage)  Placenta usually delivers within 5-30 min after the birth  Separation of the placenta from the uterine wall leaves a wound there  Strong uterine contractions (afterpains) clamp down on the bleeding vessels  Uncontrolled bleeding (postpartum hemorrhage) is the leading cause of maternal mortality around the world ← Take Home Message: The overall goal of the care of women of childbearing age around the world, from preconception care to delivery, is a healthy outcome for both mother and baby. ←