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STEP 5: WRITE THE MIDDLE PARAGRAPHS
When you have revised your provisional thesis statement and mapped out the supporting points you will develop in your essay, you can start writing the body of the essay.
It’s advisable to begin with the middle paragraphs of the essay rather than the introductory paragraph because it’s the middle paragraphs that support the thesis statement and constitute the argument of the essay. The introductory paragraph leads up to your thesis statement and the concluding paragraph begins by restating your thesis and then wraps up the essay; first and last paragraphs function as a frame around your essay’s argument, but are not part of the argument. Once you have developed your argument through the middle paragraphs, you are better able to write an opening paragraph that positions the reader to engage with your argument.
Paragraphs
Keep the following points in mind when constructing your middle paragraphs:
- A paragraph is a unit of thought.
- Each paragraph should make one point.
- A new paragraph signals to the reader that the writer has moved to a new topic or point of evidence.
- Paragraphs should have internal cohesion.
- Paragraphs should be linked logically to each other.
The length of a paragraph depends on the complexity of the topic, the purpose of the writing, the medium, and the anticipated needs of the reader. Because most academic writing is formal writing that involves complex topics and a critical reader, it is advisable to aim for at least 100 words (up to 200 words) when you write an academic paragraph.
Paragraph Structure
Structure is important not only in the essay as a whole but also in every paragraph that makes up the essay. There are three parts of a paragraph: the topic sentence, which introduces the paragraph’s topic; middle sentences, which constitute the body of the paragraph; and the wrap sentence, which concludes the paragraph.
The topic sentence
- States the paragraph’s main point,
- Should be clear and stand out from the rest of the paragraph to make it easier for readers to grasp the main point,
- Usually comes first (except in the introductory paragraph, where the topic sentence is the thesis statement and comes last),
- Connects to the wrap of the previous paragraph.
The middle sentences
- Justify, explain, clarify, support, elaborate, give evidence, examples, fill in details,
- Constitute the body of the paragraph.
The wrap sentence
- Closes the paragraph as a unit of thought,
- Reinforces the paragraph’s main point,
- Can assess the significance of what is established in the paragraph.
To demonstrate this structure, we can look at the second paragraph of Model Essay One and the third paragraph of Model Essay Two.
Model Essay One paragraph two
In the strategic plan, paragraph two had ‘focus’ as its topic. (Note that apart from its last sentence ‘the thesis statement’ the introductory paragraph has not been written at this stage.)
Thesis statement:
A successful essay has three key elements: focus, organisation, and clarity.
Analysis
Sentence 1 (topic sentence) introduces the topic of ‘focus’ , which is developed further in sentences 2, 3, and 4. Sentence 5 (wrap sentence) sums up how ‘focus’ can be achieved in writing the thesis statement.
Adding: and, also, in addition, moreover, furthermore,
Contrasting: however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, by contrast,
Clarifying: in other words, that is, in effect, to simplify,
Sequencing: to begin with, firstly, secondly, lastly, finally
Exemplifying: for example, for instance, in particular, to illustrate,
Conceding a point: although true, even though, although, despite this, Summing up: to summarise, to conclude, in conclusion, clearly then
Endorsing: clearly, in particular, importantly, naturally, obviously
Stating a logical conclusion: therefore, thus, hence, as a result, consequently, accordingly, for that reason.
While transition markers are an effective way of emphasising for the reader the relationship between one sentence and the next, there is little value in using them when the logical relationship between the sentences is already clear. In fact, over-using transition markers reduces their effectiveness; save them for the places where you need to guide the reader.
Transi�on marker example 1
Essay writing is difficult, demanding, and time-consuming. Nevertheless , it is worth mastering, because it is the basis of all academic writing.
In the example, the transition marker ‘nevertheless’ functions effectively to prepare the reader for a shift in direction from focusing on the negative characteristics of essay writing to focusing on the positive characteristics.
If you have a number of points to make, numeric transitions (first, second, etc.) are useful for signposting to the reader that each individual point should be considered separately.
Transi�on marker example 2
Transition markers have many useful functions in academic writing. Firstly , they guide the reader through the writer’s development of ideas. Secondly , they create coherence in a paragraph or essay. Lastly , they add variety to sentence structures.
Faulty Transi�ons
When using transition markers like ‘therefore’, ‘thus’, or ‘consequently’, be careful that the sentence beginning with the marker really is a logical conclusion of the preceding sentence.
Faulty transi�on example
Over the last five years there has been an increase in cases of student plagiarism. However, universities need to impose heavier penalties on students who plagiarise.
In this example, the second sentence, although related, is not a logical contrast of the first sentence: imposing heavier penalties is a possible response that universities could make to the issue of plagiarism, but it is not an inevitable outcome of the issue.
Repeat Idea Transi�on
In a repeat idea transition, ideas from the first sentence are referred back to in the following sentence. The above faulty transition example can be revised using a repeat idea transition.
Repeat idea transi�on example 1
Over the last five years there has been an increase in cases of student plagiarism. One strategy that universities might employ to address this problem is to impose heavier penalties on students who plagiarise.
In this example, the words ‘this problem’ refer the reader back to ‘an increase in cases of plagiarism’, creating cohesion between sentences. Repeat idea transitions are also useful for creating coherence between paragraphs. Here, words in the first sentence of a new paragraph refer the reader back to ideas or information in the previous paragraph.
Repeat idea transi�on example 2
…the main reason that the essay failed was that its central argument was unclear.
Such a lack of clarity can be overcome by ensuring that the essay has a strong thesis statement and strategic plan.
The first paragraph (giving reasons for the essay’s failure) concludes by reinforcing the main point. The following paragraph (about how the problem can be overcome) begins by referring back to the problem.
Using transition phrases and idea transitions strategically to direct your reader through the stages of your argument or case helps you to convince them of the validity of your thesis statement. Cohesion within and between paragraphs reinforces the reader’s impression that you as the writer have control and authority over your material. This is exactly the impression you want to give your lecturer or marker, so mastering the use of transitions is very worthwhile.
Wri�ng From Sources
In developing your middle paragraphs, you will be using your lecture, tutorial, or reading notes to develop an argument or case supporting your thesis statement. Here, it’s useful to remember the process diagram from the Introduction of this course, in particular the arrow indicating the transformation needed to turn information into knowledge.
The following provides an audio-visual representation of the Writing from sources diagram.
Wri�ng from sources diagram
Writing from sources diagram
Restart Back Next
The three most commonly used techniques for incorporating material from source texts into your own essay are:
- quoting ,
- paraphrasing , and
- summarising.
All of these techniques require citation within the text and in the bibliography or reference list at the end of the essay.
Quo�ng
Quoting means copying the author’s exact words directly from the source text. Use quotations when you want to add the power of an author’s words to support your argument or you want to highlight particularly powerful or effective phrases.
Guidelines
- (^) Keep direct quotations short.
- Use direct quotations sparingly. To demonstrate your own understanding of a topic to your reader, it’s better to paraphrase or summarise in your own words.
- Use quotations for a specific reason, not because it’s easier to quote the original text than to process it as a paraphrase or summary.
- Reference quotations accurately both in-text and in your bibliography or reference list.
- Always include page numbers in your in-text reference. When quoting, always copy verbatim that is, always copy exactly what the author has written.
Original text
The green tree frog is found in the forests of eastern Australia. It is an attractive shade of green and grows up to ten centimetres long. It eats insects and spiders, which it catches with its long sticky tongue. Some Australian green tree frogs have been known to live up to twenty years.
When you quote from this original passage, you must keep the author’s original words.
Quotation
- Croke (2004, 42) writes, ‘Some Australian green tree frogs have been known to live up to twenty years.’
- Croke (2004 , 42) claims that ‘some Australian green tree frogs’ have been known to live up to twenty years.’
- Claims have been made that Australian green tree frogs ‘have been known to live up to twenty years’ (Croke 2004, 42). If you are in doubt about where to place punctuation in relation to quotation marks, consult a style manual such as Fowler’s Modern English Usage (review).
Spelling in quota�ons
You must keep the original spelling of quotations. If you normally use Australian spelling conventions, but the passage or phrase you want to quote uses American English, you must keep the American spelling.
Quatation
- The work of New York abstract expressionist painter Jasper Shmirk is characterised by its bold colour contrasts. In the foreword of his Major Retrospective Catalogue (1984, 27) he writes, ‘The clash of colors in my “Nightsong Series” represents the experience of modern urban life.’ In this example, the writer is using the Australian spelling ‘colour’ in the text, but reproduces exactly Shmirk’s American spelling when quoting him. Note that you may use either single or double quotation marks (just make sure you use them consistently), but distinguish a quote within a quote as above. The following two versions are equally acceptable:
Quotation
Sometimes you will want to change the form of a word so that the quoted material can be incorporated grammatically into your own sentence. You must signal to the reader any changes you make by enclosing the changed word or words in square brackets.
Original text
The predominant soil type in coastal areas of Sarawak is peat. Roads built on peat soils are particularly subject to subsidence and the development of corrugation. This makes road- building a continuing civil engineering challenge.
Quotation
- Arshad and Chow (2004, 76) note that ‘the predominant soil type in coastal areas of Sarawak is peat…[making] road-building a continuing civil engineering challenge.’
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing means putting the author’s thoughts into your own words.
Use paraphrasing when:
- You want to use your own ‘voice’ to present information.
- You want to incorporate the author’s ideas into your own writing.
- You want to avoid over-quotation. Faulty paraphrasing is the source of many cases identified by lecturers as ‘plagiarism’. The problem is usually that the raw material of the source text is not sufficiently processed. Paraphrasing is primarily a cognitive process; that is, it’s about concepts rather than words alone. Playing with language – changing words and phrases in the original text – is not paraphrasing.
Paraphrasing requires you to extract not the words but the meaning from the original text and to express this meaning in your notes. When you communicate the meaning of the original text in your own writing, try to work independently from the original text, drawing instead on your own notes or concept maps.
Original Text
Since the end of the Second World War, internationalisation of Australian higher education has gone through stages of ‘aid’ (primarily through the Colombo Plan and, more recently AAS) and ‘trade’ (the marketing of Australian university courses on- and off-shore). In the twenty-first century, Australian universities have entered a third, more mature, stage that builds on the earlier stages to constitute a more comprehensive internationalisation that involves university communities engaging with internationalisation as global citizens.
Paraphrase
- Smith (2005, 64) suggests that over the last sixty years international education has gone through three stages: aid, trade, and engagement. Paraphrasing Exercise
Practise your paraphrasing technique by clicking on the ‘exercise ‘ link at the top of the page.
Summarising
Summarising means providing a broad overview of one or a number of authors’ main ideas.
Use summaries when:
- (^) You want to establish the background to a topic.
- You want to offer an overview of a topic.
- You want to describe common knowledge from several sources about a topic.
- You want to communicate the main ideas of a single source. Example
Studies of the Australian green tree frog and its environment reveal the possibility that the species could become extinct within the next fifty years (Ribbett 2002; Lillee 2003; and Croke 2004).
In this example, you are indicating to your reader that the authors Ribbett, Lillee, and Croke all make the same claim that the species could become extinct within fifty years.
have to memorise these; just make sure that you know which convention is required in your course of study and consult the relevant referencing guide, using dedicated software programs, following it carefully for in-text citations, reference lists, and/or bibliographies.
