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Page 1 of 123 Logic, Fallacy and Argument | Questions and Answers | 2026 Update | 100% Correct. Q1. Logic is best defined as: A) The study of emotions and their effects on reasoning B) The study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning C) The art of persuasion regardless of truth D) The psychological process of belief formation Answer: B Rationale: Logic is a normative discipline that evaluates arguments, not a descriptive psychology. Q2. An argument in logic is: A) A heated disagreement between two people B) A set of statements where some (premises) are offered in Page 2 of 123 support of another (conclusion) C) A series of questions designed to confuse D) Any spoken utterance Answer: B Rationale: The logical definition focuses on the structural relationship between premises and conclusion. Q3. A premise is: A) The final statement of an argument B) A statement offered as evidence or reason for the conclusion C) An irrelevant statement D) A question Answer: B Rationale: Premises support the conclusion. Page 4 of 123 Answer: B Rationale: The form “If P then Q; P; therefore Q” is valid (modus ponens). Soundness depends on truth of premises. Q6. A deductive argument is one in which: A) The conclusion probably follows from the premises B) If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true C) The conclusion is always false D) The premises are irrelevant Answer: B Rationale: Deductive validity guarantees truth preservation. Q7. An inductive argument is one in which: A) The conclusion follows necessarily B) The premises make the conclusion probable, but not certain Page 5 of 123 C) The conclusion is always false D) It is used only in mathematics Answer: B Rationale: Inductive arguments are probabilistic; they are common in science and everyday reasoning. Q8. An argument is valid if: A) All its premises are true B) It is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false C) The conclusion is true D) Most people agree with it Answer: B Rationale: Validity is about logical form, not factual truth. Page 7 of 123 Answer: A Rationale: The form is valid (categorical syllogism), but “all birds can fly” is false, so unsound. Q11. An argument is strong (in the inductive sense) if: A) The conclusion is certainly true B) If the premises are true, the conclusion is probably true C) The premises are false D) It is deductively valid Answer: B Rationale: Inductive strength is about probability. Q12. A counterexample to an argument shows: A) That the premises are false B) That the argument form is invalid by providing a case with true premises and false conclusion Page 8 of 123 C) That the conclusion is false D) That the argument is sound Answer: B Rationale: Counterexamples are used to test validity. Q13. The principle of charity in argument analysis means: A) Always accept the argument B) Interpret the argument in the strongest, most reasonable way before criticizing it C) Ignore the argument D) Assume the arguer is lying Answer: B Rationale: Charity avoids straw man fallacies. Page 10 of 123 Answer: B Rationale: “Close the door” is a command, not a declarative sentence. Q16. The logical connective that represents “if ... then ...” is: A) Conjunction (A) B) Disjunction (V) C) Conditional (—) D) Negation (7) Answer: C Rationale: The conditional (implication) is symbolized as —. Q17. The truth table for a conjunction (P A Q) is true only when: A) P is true B) Q is true Page 11 of 123 C) Both P and Q are true D) Either P or Q is true Answer: C Rationale: Conjunction is true only when both conjuncts are true. Q18. The truth table for a disjunction (P V Q) in inclusive sense is true when: A) Only P is true B) Only Q is true C) Both are true D) All of the above (at least one true) Answer: D Rationale: Inclusive “or” is true if at least one disjunct is true. Page 13 of 123 Part 2: Propositions and Categorical Statements (Questions 21-40) Q21. In categorical logic, the four standard forms are: A) A, E, |, O (universal affirmative, universal negative, particular affirmative, particular negative) B) True, False, Indeterminate, Paradox C) And, Or, If, Not D) Subject, Predicate, Quantifier, Copula Answer: A Rationale: The four categorical forms: A (All S are P), E (No S are P), | (Some S are P), O (Some S are not P). Q22. The statement “All dogs are mammals” is an example of: A) Particular affirmative (I) B) Universal affirmative (A) Page 14 of 123 C) Universal negative (E) D) Particular negative (O) Answer: B Rationale: “All S are P” is the A form. Q23. “No reptiles are warm-blooded” is an example of: A)A B)E C) 1 D)O Answer: B Rationale: “No S are P” is the E form. Q724. “Some politicians are honest” is an example of: A)A Page 16 of 123 Q26. The square of opposition shows logical relationships between categorical statements. Two statements are contradictories if: A) They can both be true but cannot both be false B) They cannot both be true and cannot both be false C) They can both be false but cannot both be true D) One implies the other Answer: B Rationale: Contradictories have opposite truth values. Example: “All S are P” and “Some §S are not P.” Q27. (Scenario) If “All birds can fly” is false, what can be inferred about its contradictory? A) “Some birds cannot fly” must be true B) “No birds can fly” must be true Page 17 of 123 C) “Some birds can fly” must be true D) Nothing Answer: A Rationale: The contradictory of A is O: “Some S are not P.” If A is false, O is true. Q28. The converse of “All S are P” is: A) All P are S B) No S are P C) All P are S (but the converse is not logically equivalent) D) Some S are P Answer: C Rationale: Converse switches subject and predicate. “All S are P” does not imply its converse. Page 19 of 123 Answer: B Rationale: Contrapositive of A is “All non-P are non-S.” Q31. (Scenario) “All squares are rectangles.” Its contrapositive is: A) All rectangles are squares B) All non-rectangles are non-squares C) Some rectangles are squares D) No squares are non-rectangles Answer: B Rationale: Contrapositive: “All non-P are non-S.” Q32. In the traditional square of opposition, subalternation (A to |, E to O) means: A) If A is true, | must be true B) If | is false, A must be false Page 20 of 123 C) Both A and B D) Neither Answer: C Rationale: A implies | (if all S are P, then some S are P). Also, if | is false, A is false. Q33. The subcontrary relationship (1 and O) means: A) They cannot both be true B) They cannot both be false C) They are contradictory D) They are equivalent Answer: B Rationale: Subcontraries can both be true, but at least one must be true. 
