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Logical Fallacies and Reasoning, Exams of Creative Thinking

Duke UniversityCreative Thinking

An overview of various logical fallacies and reasoning concepts, including deduction, induction, and inference to the best explanation. It covers the differences between validity and soundness, as well as common logical errors such as affirming the consequent, denying the antecedent, begging the question, and the fallacy fallacy. The document also discusses various fallacies of relevance, including the ad hominem, genetic, red herring, appeal to authority, and appeal to popularity fallacies. Additionally, it covers the slippery slope fallacy, the false dilemma fallacy, and the fallacy of shifting the burden of proof. The document aims to help readers understand the importance of sound reasoning and critical thinking in various academic and real-world contexts.

Typology: Exams

2023/2024

Available from 09/19/2024

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CRITICAL THINKING REASON AND
EVIDENCE D265 QUESTIONS AND
ANSWERS 2024 UPDATED AND GRADED
A+
Which sentence is a non-proposition?
- If the burglar did not go out the front door, they must have gone out a
window.
- The earth is the third planet from the sun.
- Where are the keys to my car?
- Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world. - SolutionWhere are
the keys to my car?
Did the company really close that deal? It has had a great year. Where is
the president right now? Let's go ask whether the deal was closed.
In the above paragraph, which sentence expresses a proposition?
- Where is the president right now?
- Did the company really close that deal?
- Let's go ask whether the deal was closed.
- It has had a great year. - SolutionIt has had a great year.
Propositions - SolutionStatements that can be true or false.
Non-propositions - SolutionSentences that are not statements about
matters of fact (or fiction). They do not make a claim that can be true or
false.
Which sentence expresses a complex proposition?
- Birthday parties can be really fun.
- The cat ate the food, but did not like it.
- Too many employees are used to high-stress work environments in the
United States.
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CRITICAL THINKING REASON AND

EVIDENCE D265 QUESTIONS AND

ANSWERS 2024 UPDATED AND GRADED

A+

Which sentence is a non-proposition?

  • If the burglar did not go out the front door, they must have gone out a window.
  • The earth is the third planet from the sun.
  • Where are the keys to my car?
  • Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world. - Solution Where are the keys to my car? Did the company really close that deal? It has had a great year. Where is the president right now? Let's go ask whether the deal was closed. In the above paragraph, which sentence expresses a proposition?
  • Where is the president right now?
  • Did the company really close that deal?
  • Let's go ask whether the deal was closed.
  • It has had a great year. - Solution It has had a great year. Propositions - Solution Statements that can be true or false. Non-propositions - Solution Sentences that are not statements about matters of fact (or fiction). They do not make a claim that can be true or false. Which sentence expresses a complex proposition?
  • Birthday parties can be really fun.
  • The cat ate the food, but did not like it.
  • Too many employees are used to high-stress work environments in the United States.
  • Why did the monkey escape, and who is responsible? - Solution the cat ate the food, but did not like it. If the computer is not fixed, then the company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity. Which of the following breaks down the complex proposition above into the simple propositions?
  • If the computer is not fixed, then the company needs to buy a new one. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
  • The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
  • The computer is not fixed. The company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity.
  • The company does not have enough computers. - Solution The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity. Simple propositions - Solution Simple propositions have no internal logical structure, meaning whether they are true or false does not depend on whether part of them is true or false. They are simply true or false on their own. Complex propositions - Solution Complex propositions have internal logical structure, meaning they are composed of simple propositions. Whether they are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false. If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness? Nobody likes a 7 a.m. start time, but it was in the job description. We should remind the new employee how important this is. Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?
  • The new employee wants to succeed.
  • How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness?
  • The employees look out for each other.
  • If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. - Solution The new employee wants to succeed.
  • We can have a good time without spending money. - Solution - We cannot go out until the restaurant opens.
  • We are trying to save money. Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam. This means that the exam was too difficult to accurately assess student learning. Therefore, as exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning, the exam must be revised and readministered. Which statement is the conclusion of the above argument?
  • The exam must be revised and readministered.
  • Some students in the class scored higher than 70% on the exam.
  • Exams are supposed to accurately assess student learning.
  • Most students in the class scored less than 70% on the exam. - Solution The exam must be revised and readministered. Which sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers.
  • We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing glances at their neighbor's test.
  • The student only cheated on the exam because their financial aid depended on it.
  • No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese.
  • If you suspect you have been infected with rabies, then you should contact a medical professional immediately. - Solution - We know the student cheated on the exam because the instructor caught the student stealing glances at their neighbor's test.
  • No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese. Which pairs of sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers.
  • Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time.
  • We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life.
  • John Lennon was shot and killed. So were Bobby Kennedy and his brother John.
  • One student cheated on the test. But it was only because the student felt ill prepared. - Solution - Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time.
  • We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life. I just heard the news about Riley's car. It was vandalized last Saturday. There is no doubt Jordan did it. I went to the bowling alley that night. I bowled a 160! Anyway, I saw Jordan there and, although it was barely noticeable, I definitely saw paint on Jordan's shirt. It is unlikely there would be paint on Jordan's shirt unless Jordan had spray-painted Riley's car. It is a shame, really, since it was such a nice shirt. It was the green one. Oh, and you know Jordan has motive. After all, Jordan has a well-known grudge against Riley. You remember when Riley borrowed Jordan's lawnmower and did not return it. And there was opportunity, because Jordan does not work on the weekend and usually stays home watching television. But the lightning storm earlier last week short-circuited Jordan's TV set. Besides, they canceled Jordan's favorite Saturday evening show. Which description best characterizes the above?
  • A story
    • Solution An argument Kinds of Inferences - Solution Deduction Induction Inference to the best explanation or abduction Deduction - Solution arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion — mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition Induction - Solution arguments where the premises make the conclusion probable — analogies, authority, causal inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations, etc.

Consider the following argument: If Jones is a baseball player, then Jones is an athlete. Jones is a baseball player. Thus, Jones is an athlete. Which kind of argument is this?

  • A conditional proposition
  • A valid argument
  • A strong argument
  • An invalid argument - Solution A valid argument In deductive reasoning, what is the difference between validity and soundness?
  • Validity concerns the truth of an argument's premises, but soundness requires a high degree of probability.
  • Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises.
  • Validity concerns an argument's probability, but soundness requires clearly defined terms.
  • Validity concerns the inductive strength of an argument, but soundness requires both strength and plausible premises. - Solution Validity only concerns the structure of an argument, but soundness requires both validity and true premises. Which sentences reflect strong critical thinking? Choose 2 answers.
  • I disagree with my opponent's position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
  • I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem.
  • Unlike some others, I do not jump to conclusions, nor am I biased.
  • While I am open to discussion on the topic, I am committed to my position because I know it is right. - Solution - I disagree with my opponent's position on this issue, but I respect my opponents and I am curious to hear their thoughts on the matter.
  • I know that issues can be complicated, and that it is often difficult to determine the best approach to a problem. Which sentences are propositions? Choose 2 answers.
  • Hey, let's go to lunch at noon today.
  • Mangino's has the best pizza.
  • They will likely put the other restaurants out of business.
  • Do you like Mangino's pizza? - Solution - Mangino's has the best pizza.
  • They will likely put the other restaurants out of business. Which statement is a simple proposition?
  • Because I was dressed for work, I took an umbrella and ran to my car.
  • I had a work deadline approaching, so I ate lunch at my desk and finished my work.
  • I stopped at the grocery store and bought some milk.
  • By noon, the sun was shining. - Solution By noon, the sun was shining. Which indicator is a premise indicator?
  • Hence
  • Because
  • Thus
  • Therefore - Solution Because Because flying cars will relieve traffic congestion, and since the research and development of such vehicles will be expensive, it follows that the government should encourage industry to develop flying cars and banks should help fund industry research. Which phrases contain conclusions of this argument? Choose 2 answers.
  • Flying cars will relieve traffic congestion
  • The research and development of such vehicles will be expensive
  • The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
  • Banks should help fund industry research - Solution - The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
  • Banks should help fund industry research Dogs are bred for many different purposes. Poodles, for example, make good house pets, while German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. Therefore, because it is important to select the

Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?

  • Deductive
  • Invalid
  • Inductive
  • Abductive - Solution Deductive Usually when the audience comes out of a theater laughing, that means the film was funny. The audience leaving the theater after this film is laughing. So the film probably is funny. Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
  • Valid
  • Sound
  • Inductive
  • Deductive - Solution Inductive All dogs can fly. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger can fly. Which types of reasoning are illustrated in this example? Choose 2 answers.
  • Deductive
  • Valid
  • True
  • Sound - Solution - Deductive
  • Valid An individual drops hundreds of objects, and each time they fall to the ground. The individual therefore concludes that if someone drops a pencil, it will fall. Which terms describe the argument? Choose 2 answers.
  • Deductive
  • Valid
  • Strong
  • Cogent - Solution - Strong
  • Cogent If I am bald, then I am old. I am old. Therefore, I am bald. Which type of logic error is this an example of?
  • Begging the question
  • The fallacy fallacy
  • Denying the antecedent
  • Affirming the consequent - Solution Affirming the consequent If I am a soldier, then I am brave. I am not a soldier. Therefore, I am not brave. Which type of logic error is this an example of?
  • Affirming the consequent
  • Denying the antecedent
  • Begging the question
  • The fallacy fallacy - Solution Denying the antecedent One should never cheat on a test, since cheating is wrong. Which type of logic error is this an example of?
  • Affirming the consequent
  • Denying the antecedent
  • Begging the question
  • The fallacy fallacy - Solution Begging the question My opponent argues that the earth is round because Dr. Evil shaped it that way using his satellite mounted laser. Since Dr. Evil is a fictitious character, you must reject the argument that the earth is round. This is an example of which type of logic error?
  • Denying the antecedent
  • Affirming the consequent
  • Begging the question
  • The fallacy fallacy - Solution The fallacy fallacy Which of the following is an accurate characterization of "fallacy" as that term is used in logic?
  • A fallacy is a formal violation of a state law.
  • A fallacy is a false claim.
  • A fallacy is a deliberate attempt to deceive.
  • A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning. - Solution A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning.
  • Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
  • Does the story support your political views?
  • Has the subject of a negative story dismissed it as fake news?
  • Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story? - Solution - Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
  • Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story? Which of the following are reasons for applying the principle of charity? Choose 2 answers.
  • It makes debates easier to win.
  • It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
  • It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue.
  • It makes one look good by making one's opponent look weak. - Solution - It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
  • It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue. Which passage best demonstrates the principle of charity?
  • Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round.
  • Morgan said, "The new tax levy to support local schools is too expensive." Morgan must think education is unimportant.
  • Reese said, "The oil industry has contributed to climate change." Reese must believe the oil industry is responsible for every natural disaster that occurs.
  • Campbell said, "People convicted of theft should not automatically receive harsh prison sentences." Campbell must mean that people who steal should never be punished. - Solution Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round. Smith is committed to the belief that technological advancement is always beneficial and thus never detrimental to human life. Smith reads a carefully written and sufficiently argued essay in which the author contends that the human adoption of any new technology involves both advantages and disadvantages to its adopters. Since Smith is a loyal technophile, Smith

accepts the author's claims about the advantages of technology but rejects the author's claims about the disadvantages of technology. Which cognitive bias is Smith demonstrating?

  • Dunning-Kruger effect
  • Self-serving bias
  • Optimism bias
  • Confirmation bias - Solution Confirmation bias Cognitive bias - Solution The way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us. Alief - Solution An automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned-out beliefs. Heuristic - Solution a rule of thumb, a ready strategy, or a shortcut Which of the following is an example of the anchoring bias?
  • Ortega is inclined to accept relevant evidence that supports his views about religion, but to deny relevant evidence that counts against his views.
  • Smith accepts a belief only because all of his friends accept it.
  • Miller possesses a good deal of knowledge about her profession, which is banking. She therefore concludes that she also knows a good deal about political science.
  • Jones collects five pieces of evidence to support a belief, but arbitrarily emphasizes the first piece of evidence. - Solution Jones collects five pieces of evidence to support a belief, but arbitrarily emphasizes the first piece of evidence. Algorithm bubble - Solution The curated and personalized version of online reality that a website shows you when you log on. Availability heuristic - Solution A process where in the mind generalizes based on what is available to it rather than on what is objectively true. Which of the following is a form of cognitive bias? The false dilemma fallacy The Peter Principle Begging the question
  • Unfair stereotype - Solution Selection bias Which is the best example of System 1 thinking?
  • Researching different candidates' tax plans to determine how to vote
  • Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed
  • Splitting the bill with friends at a restaurant
  • Consulting multiple sources to form an investment plan - Solution Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed Which is the best example of System 2 thinking?
  • Choosing the best college for one's child
  • Realizing, due to a crashing sound, that something happened upstairs
  • Thinking that food is rotten because it smells bad
  • Solving the equation 1+3=? - Solution Choosing the best college for one's child System 1 Thinking - Solution This is quick, automatic thinking System 2 Thinking - Solution This is deliberate thinking When asked how likely it is for an urban cyclist to get in an accident, a survey respondent remembered that their friend got into a cycling accident last week. This makes them conclude that cycling accidents are fairly likely. Which statement is correct about the source of bias in the passage and how to avoid its impact?
  • This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large.
  • This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by seeking out the best arguments for alternative viewpoints.
  • This is availability bias. It is best avoided by going with one's instincts and avoiding too much deliberation.
  • This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by staying fixed in one's beliefs and not allowing outside influences to change one's views. - Solution This

is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large. Which statement about how to respond to bias is correct?

  • Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a person.
  • Since humans are bound to be influenced by bias in everything they do, there is no point in trying to respond to bias.
  • Humans are not influenced by bias.
  • All different forms of bias can be responded to in the same way: by putting extra weight on any conclusion that does not seem immediately plausible. - Solution Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a person. Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a news story?
  • Whether the political party affiliation of the author is identified
  • Whether the article contains video footage
  • Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
  • Whether there is widespread agreement with the story on social media - Solution Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified While researching a topic on the internet, a student encounters two different websites, one of that looks more official than the other and includes tables, charts, and statistics, while the other does not. What is the line of reasoning this student should employ to determine which site is more credible?
  • Neither site is credible, unless one of the two is truly an official government website run by a government agency.
  • The site that looks more official with tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it reflects professionalism and objectivity.
  • It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
  • The site that looks less official and does not include tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it is more straightforward and objective.
  • Solution It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.

Ad Hominem Fallacy (Latin for "to the man") - Solution A fallacy of logic in which a person's character or motive is attacked instead of the person's argument Genetic Fallacy - Solution Condemning an argument because of where it began, how it began, or who began it. Straw Figure Fallacy - Solution is committed when one misrepresents another's argument then attacks the misrepresented (weaker) argument rather than the actual (stronger) argument. red herring fallacy - Solution the use of irrelevant material to divert attention appeal to authority fallacy - Solution error of accepting a claim merely because an authority figure endorses it appeal to force (fallacy of relevance) - Solution when one uses a threat to compel agreement with one's claim Appeal to Popularity Fallacy - Solution Arguing that a claim must be true because lots of people believe it. appeal to consequences fallacy - Solution when one appeals to the bad (or good) consequences of accepting a claim as a reason to reject (or accept) it as true. Fallacy of Equivocation - Solution when one's argument mistakenly uses the same word in two different senses. Conner and Miller are discussing the topic of intelligent life in other solar systems. Conner asks Miller, "Do you believe that there is intelligent life in the Alpha Centauri planetary system?" Miller replies, "I don't know that there isn't intelligent life there. There's no proof that there isn't. So, I believe there is intelligent life in that planetary system." Which fallacy did Miller commit?

  • The false dilemma fallacy
  • The fallacy of appeal to ignorance
  • The fallacy of begging the question
  • The fallacy of appeal to the people - Solution The fallacy of appeal to ignorance Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first, he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out of his house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took him to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery. Which fallacy did Jones commit?
  • The fallacy of appeal to emotion
  • The fallacy of wishful thinking
  • The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc
  • The false dilemma fallacy - Solution The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc What fallacy occurs when a person reasons that one event is likely to lead to another event due to a chain of intermediary events, even though the probability of that entire chain being realized is low?
  • The slippery slope fallacy
  • The fallacy of ad hominem
  • The fallacy of avoiding the issue
  • The bandwagon fallacy - Solution The slippery slope fallacy Which of the following is the most pertinent question to ask when trying to identify the fallacy of begging the question?
  • Are the premises known to be true?
  • Is the argument relevant to the topic of the debate?
  • Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument?
  • Is the conclusion known to be true? - Solution Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument? Suppose a person argues that one and only one of two options is true. However, there are more than two options. In other words, the argument looks like this: Either p is true or q is true. Q is not true.