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D265 Critical Thinking Reason and
Evidence Questions and ANSWERS
Which sentence is a non-proposition?
- If the burglar did not go out the front door, they must have gone out a window.
- The earth is the third planet from the sun.
- Where are the keys to my car?
- Mount Everest is the tallest mountain in the world. - ✔️ Where are the keys to my car?
Did the company really close that deal? It has had a great year. Where is the president right now? Let's go ask whether the deal was closed.
In the above paragraph, which sentence expresses a proposition?
- Where is the president right now?
- Did the company really close that deal?
- Let's go ask whether the deal was closed.
- It has had a great year. - ✔️ It has had a great year.
Propositions - ✔️ Statements that can be true or false.
Non-propositions - ✔️ Sentences that are not statements about matters of fact (or fiction). They do not make a claim that can be true or false.
Which sentence expresses a complex proposition?
- Birthday parties can be really fun.
- The cat ate the food, but did not like it.
- Too many employees are used to high-stress work environments in the United States.
- Why did the monkey escape, and who is responsible? - ✔️ The cat ate the food, but did not like it.
If the computer is not fixed, then the company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity. Which of the following breaks down the complex proposition above into the simple propositions?
- If the computer is not fixed, then the company needs to buy a new one. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
- The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
- The computer is not fixed. The company either needs to buy a new one or will not be able to keep up productivity.
- The company does not have enough computers. - ✔️ The computer is not fixed. The company needs to buy a new computer. The company will not be able to keep up productivity.
Simple propositions - ✔️ Simple propositions have no internal logical structure, meaning whether they are true or false does not depend on whether part of them is true or false. They are simply true or false on their own.
Complex propositions - ✔️ Complex propositions have internal logical structure, meaning they are composed of simple propositions. Whether they are true or false depends on whether their parts are true or false.
If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness? Nobody likes a 7 a.m. start time, but it was in the job description. We should remind the new employee how important this is. Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?
- The new employee wants to succeed.
- How many times have we heard the manager complain about tardiness?
- The employees look out for each other.
- If the new employee wants to succeed, then they need to show up on time. - ✔️ The new employee wants to succeed.
The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us. Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care. What can be done to improve this? If changes are not made soon, the problem will only get worse. Which is a simple proposition that is expressed in the above paragraph?
- Many people are not sure where they can go to get care.
- The U.S. healthcare system is difficult to navigate, and this negatively affects many of us.
- What can be done to improve this?
- Many people are unsure exactly how their health insurance coverage works and are not sure where they can go to get care. - ✔️ Many people are not sure where they can go to get care.
Bad inferential structure - ✔️ Every argument with the same structure as this argument is bad (invalid or weak). The premises do not, in fact, demonstrate or maybe even support the conclusion. In other words, we can accept the premises as true without being compelled to accept the conclusion. There is something wrong with this argument's general structure.
- No one has ever been to the moon, so we do not know that it is not made of cheese.
Which pairs of sentences are arguments? Choose 2 answers.
- Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time.
- We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life.
- John Lennon was shot and killed. So were Bobby Kennedy and his brother John.
- One student cheated on the test. But it was only because the student felt ill prepared. - ✔️ - Every time I walk by here, Chris is doing nothing. Chris must not do anything with the available time.
- We need to act now to reverse greenhouse gas emissions. If we do not, the earth will soon become inhospitable to human life.
I just heard the news about Riley's car. It was vandalized last Saturday. There is no doubt Jordan did it. I went to the bowling alley that night. I bowled a 160! Anyway, I saw Jordan there and, although it was barely noticeable, I definitely saw paint on Jordan's shirt. It is unlikely there would be paint on Jordan's shirt unless Jordan had spray-painted Riley's car. It is a shame, really, since it was such a nice shirt. It was the green one. Oh, and you know Jordan has motive. After all, Jordan has a well- known grudge against Riley. You remember when Riley borrowed Jordan's lawnmower and did not return it. And there was opportunity, because Jordan does not work on the weekend and usually stays home watching television. But the lightning storm earlier last week short-circuited Jordan's TV set. Besides, they canceled Jordan's favorite Saturday evening show. Which description best characterizes the above?
Kinds of Inferences - ✔️ Deduction Induction Inference to the best explanation or abduction
Deduction - ✔️ arguments where the premises guarantee or necessitate the conclusion — mathematical arguments, logical arguments, arguments from definition
Induction - ✔️ arguments where the premises make the conclusion probable — analogies, authority, causal inferences, scientific reasoning, extrapolations, etc.
Inference to the best explanation or abduction -
✔️ arguments where the best available explanation is chosen as the correct explanation
Truth - ✔️ A true proposition accurately represents reality.
Validity - ✔️ In a good deductive argument structure, true premises make the conclusion necessarily true. (If not, it is an invalid structure.)
Soundness - ✔️ The deductive argument is valid and all premises are true premises. (If not, it is an unsound argument.)
Sound Argument - ✔️ All True Premises + Valid Structure
Strength - ✔️ In a strong inductive argument, true premises make the conclusion probably true.
Cogency - ✔️ Strong inductive arguments with all true premises are cogent.
Consider the following argument: Smith inspected 990 jellybeans in the jar. Each of the beans Smith inspected is red. Therefore, all 1000 of the beans in the jar are red. Which kind of argument is this?
- A strong argument
- Deductive argument
- A weak argument
- A valid argument - ✔️ A strong argument
Some arguments are such that the premises of the argument entail its conclusion, which means that if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. What are such arguments called?
- Inductive arguments
- Abductive arguments
- Fallacious arguments
- Valid arguments - ✔️ Valid arguments
Consider the following argument: If Jones is a baseball player, then Jones is an athlete. Jones is a baseball player. Thus, Jones is an athlete. Which kind of argument is this?
- A conditional proposition
- A valid argument
Which indicator is a premise indicator?
- Hence
- Because
- Thus
- Therefore - ✔️ Because
Because flying cars will relieve traffic congestion, and since the research and development of such vehicles will be expensive, it follows that the government should encourage industry to develop flying cars and banks should help fund industry research. Which phrases contain conclusions of this argument? Choose 2 answers.
- Flying cars will relieve traffic congestion
- The research and development of such vehicles will be expensive
- The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
- Banks should help fund industry research - ✔️ - The government should encourage industry to develop flying cars
- Banks should help fund industry research
Dogs are bred for many different purposes. Poodles, for example, make good house pets, while German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection. Therefore, because it is important to select the right breed for your needs, you should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice. Which statement is the conclusion of the argument?
- German shepherds and other large breeds can be used for home protection.
- Dogs are bred for many different purposes.
- You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
- It is important to select the right breed for your needs. - ✔️ You should carefully research dog breeds to make the right choice.
Everyone should vote ___________________. Which phrase would form an argument when added to this sentence?
- because it is their duty
- for the most honest candidate
- in their assigned district
- before the deadline - ✔️ because it is their duty
People have fought for freedom since the beginning of time. Which descriptor best characterizes this sentence?
- Weak argument
- Strong argument - ✔️ Proposition
Jordan says, "I am the best student at our high school; I am the tallest and most athletic, and I have the best car." Taylor, Jordan's best friend, totally agrees. Which two descriptors best characterize Jordan's comments? Choose two answers.
- Weak argument
- Proposition
- Inference
- Strong argument - ✔️ - Weak argument
- Inference
All dogs are cute. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger is cute. Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
- Deductive
- Invalid
- Inductive
- Abductive - ✔️ Deductive
Usually when the audience comes out of a theater laughing, that means the film was funny. The audience leaving the theater after this film is laughing. So the film probably is funny. Which type of reasoning is illustrated in this example?
- Valid
- Sound
- Inductive
- Deductive - ✔️ Inductive
All dogs can fly. Ginger is a dog. Therefore, Ginger can fly. Which types of reasoning are illustrated in this example? Choose 2 answers.
- Deductive
- Valid
- True
- Sound - ✔️ - Deductive
- Valid
An individual drops hundreds of objects, and each time they fall to the ground. The individual therefore concludes that if someone drops a pencil, it will fall. Which terms describe the argument? Choose 2 answers.
- A fallacy is a deliberate attempt to deceive.
- A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning. - ✔️ A fallacy is a common mistake in reasoning.
Formal Fallacy - ✔️ The word "formal" refers to the structure of things.
Informal Fallacy - ✔️ Informal fallacies have a problem with their content.
A formal fallacy concerns _______, but an informal fallacy concerns _______. - ✔️ the structure of an argument
By definition, a formal fallacy concerns the structure of an argument and an informal fallacy concerns the information contained in the argument's structure.
A formal fallacy is a type of _______. - ✔️ Bad argument structure Formality is associated with structure.
Which questions are most appropriate for evaluating the credibility of an information source? Choose 2 answers.
- Who funded it?
- Does it try to get you to distrust other sources?
- Does it support your beliefs and values?
- Is it free of bias? - ✔️ - Who funded it?
- Does it try to get you to distrust other sources?
Which study is most likely to be corrupted by bias?
- A study by the marketing department of an oil company determining the best use of the company's advertising dollars
- A study by a group representing organic farmers examining the health benefits of eating organic foods
- A study by an independent research group detailing the effects of global warming
- A study by a nonpartisan polling firm showing strong support for a new tax levy - ✔️ - A study by a group representing organic farmers examining the health benefits of eating organic foods
Which questions can best help readers avoid being misled by fake news? Choose 2 answers.
- Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
- Does the story support your political views?
- Has the subject of a negative story dismissed it as fake news?
- Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story? - ✔️ - Has the story been vetted by independent fact-checkers?
- Are multiple news outlets independently reporting the same story?
Which of the following are reasons for applying the principle of charity? Choose 2 answers.
- It makes debates easier to win.
- It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
- It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue.
- It makes one look good by making one's opponent look weak. - ✔️ - It is morally right to give others the benefit of the doubt.
- It allows for a clearer understanding of the issue.
Which passage best demonstrates the principle of charity?
- Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round.
- Morgan said, "The new tax levy to support local schools is too expensive." Morgan must think education is unimportant.
- Reese said, "The oil industry has contributed to climate change." Reese must believe the oil industry is responsible for every natural disaster that occurs.
- Campbell said, "People convicted of theft should not automatically receive harsh prison sentences." Campbell must mean that people who steal should never be punished. - ✔️ Shae said, "It seems that the earth is flat." Shae must mean that the earth looks flat to observers on the ground even though our planet really is round.
Smith is committed to the belief that technological advancement is always beneficial and thus never detrimental to human life. Smith reads a carefully written and sufficiently argued essay in which the author contends that the human adoption of any new technology involves both advantages and disadvantages to its adopters. Since Smith is a loyal technophile, Smith accepts the author's claims about the advantages of technology but rejects the author's claims about the disadvantages of technology. Which cognitive bias is Smith demonstrating?
- Dunning-Kruger effect
- Self-serving bias
- Optimism bias
- Confirmation bias - ✔️ Confirmation bias
Cognitive bias - ✔️ The way we naturally categorize and make sense of the world around us.
Alief - ✔️ An automatic belief-like attitude that can explain how our instinctual responses can conflict with our reasoned-out beliefs.
Heuristic -
- Does the generalization follow at least one rule of deductive logic?
- Does the generalization confirm what you already believe?
- Is the generalization consistent with popular beliefs in your society?
- Is the generalization based on a sufficient number of germane samples? - ✔️ Is the generalization based on a sufficient number of germane samples?
The Bright Tooth toothpaste company runs the following advertisement: "Use Bright Tooth toothpaste. Nine out of ten dentists recommend it!" You decide to research this claim. You discover that the Bright Tooth toothpaste company surveyed only ten carefully selected dentists, nine of whom expressed support for Bright Tooth toothpaste. You also learn that, as of 2019, there were 200,419 dentists in the United States alone. Which error is committed in the advertisement?
- Selection bias
- Thinking Slow
- Selective attention
- Unfair stereotype - ✔️ Selection bias
Which is the best example of System 1 thinking?
- Researching different candidates' tax plans to determine how to vote
- Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed
- Splitting the bill with friends at a restaurant
- Consulting multiple sources to form an investment plan - ✔️ Automatically forming a judgment about someone based on how they are dressed
Which is the best example of System 2 thinking?
- Choosing the best college for one's child
- Realizing, due to a crashing sound, that something happened upstairs
- Thinking that food is rotten because it smells bad
- Solving the equation 1+3=? - ✔️ Choosing the best college for one's child
System 1 Thinking - ✔️ This is quick, automatic thinking
System 2 Thinking - ✔️ This is deliberate thinking
When asked how likely it is for an urban cyclist to get in an accident, a survey respondent remembered that their friend got into a cycling accident last week. This makes them conclude that cycling accidents are fairly likely. Which statement is correct about the source of bias in the passage and how to avoid its impact?
- This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large.
- This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by seeking out the best arguments for alternative viewpoints.
- This is availability bias. It is best avoided by going with one's instincts and avoiding too much deliberation.
- This is confirmation bias. It is best avoided by staying fixed in one's beliefs and not allowing outside influences to change one's views. - ✔️ This is availability bias. It is best avoided by carefully considering whether the examples that come to mind are truly representative of the world at large.
Which statement about how to respond to bias is correct?
- Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a person.
- Since humans are bound to be influenced by bias in everything they do, there is no point in trying to respond to bias.
- Humans are not influenced by bias.
- All different forms of bias can be responded to in the same way: by putting extra weight on any conclusion that does not seem immediately plausible. - ✔️ Different forms of bias are best responded to in different ways, depending on how they impact a person.
Which piece of information would be the most helpful to know in assessing the credibility of a news story?
- Whether the political party affiliation of the author is identified
- Whether the article contains video footage
- Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
- Whether there is widespread agreement with the story on social media - ✔️ Whether the name of the author and the publication are identified
While researching a topic on the internet, a student encounters two different websites, one of that looks more official than the other and includes tables, charts, and statistics, while the other does not. What is the line of reasoning this student should employ to determine which site is more credible?
- Neither site is credible, unless one of the two is truly an official government website run by a government agency.
- The site that looks more official with tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it reflects professionalism and objectivity.
- It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
- The site that looks less official and does not include tables, charts, and statistics is more credible because it is more straightforward and objective. - ✔️ It is not feasible to determine which site is more credible from the information provided.
✔️ is committed when one misrepresents another's argument then attacks the misrepresented (weaker) argument rather than the actual (stronger) argument.
red herring fallacy - ✔️ the use of irrelevant material to divert attention
appeal to authority fallacy - ✔️ error of accepting a claim merely because an authority figure endorses it
appeal to force (fallacy of relevance) - ✔️ when one uses a threat to compel agreement with one's claim
Appeal to Popularity Fallacy - ✔️ Arguing that a claim must be true because lots of people believe it.
appeal to consequences fallacy - ✔️ when one appeals to the bad (or good) consequences of accepting a claim as a reason to reject (or accept) it as true.
Fallacy of Equivocation - ✔️ when one's argument mistakenly uses the same word in two different senses.
Conner and Miller are discussing the topic of intelligent life in other solar systems. Conner asks Miller, "Do you believe that there is intelligent life in the Alpha Centauri planetary system?" Miller replies, "I don't know that there isn't intelligent life there. There's no proof that there isn't. So, I believe there is intelligent life in that planetary system." Which fallacy did Miller commit?
- The false dilemma fallacy
- The fallacy of appeal to ignorance
- The fallacy of begging the question
- The fallacy of appeal to the people - ✔️ The fallacy of appeal to ignorance
Suppose Jones believes that every morning that he steps out of his house with his right foot first, he will have a good day. Jones believes this because last Tuesday morning he stepped out of his house with his right foot first. Later in the day, he received a raise at work, his friends took him to lunch, and he won $500 in the lottery. Which fallacy did Jones commit?
- The fallacy of appeal to emotion
- The fallacy of wishful thinking
- The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc
- The false dilemma fallacy - ✔️ The fallacy of post hoc ergo propter hoc
What fallacy occurs when a person reasons that one event is likely to lead to another event due to a chain of intermediary events, even though the probability of that entire chain being realized is low?
- The slippery slope fallacy
- The fallacy of ad hominem
- The fallacy of avoiding the issue
- The bandwagon fallacy - ✔️ The slippery slope fallacy
Which of the following is the most pertinent question to ask when trying to identify the fallacy of begging the question?
- Are the premises known to be true?
- Is the argument relevant to the topic of the debate?
- Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument?
- Is the conclusion known to be true? - ✔️ Are any of the premises of the argument identical to the conclusion of the argument?
Suppose a person argues that one and only one of two options is true. However, there are more than two options. In other words, the argument looks like this: Either p is true or q is true. Q is not true. Therefore, p is true. However, there is a third option, r. Which of the following fallacies is present in this argument?
- The fallacy of cherry-picking the evidence
- The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
- The fallacy of circular reasoning
- The false dilemma fallacy - ✔️ The false dilemma fallacy
Suppose that Smith asserts a claim that could be true but seems implausible. Jones recognizes this point and asks Smith to provide evidence for his claim. Smith responds: "Why don't you try to disprove my claim?" Which fallacy is found in this argument?
- The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
- The fallacy of oversimplification
- The fallacy of selective attention
- The red herring fallacy - ✔️ The fallacy of shifting the burden of proof
In which argument do premises (1) and (2) provide conjoint support for conclusion (3)?
We should buy an electric car. Granted, they are more expensive up front than gas cars, but we have the money, and we will save on gas in the long run. Additionally, electric cars are better for the environment. And they are becoming more stylish! Which is a hidden assumption of the given argument?
- If something is better for the environment, then that counts in favor of choosing it.
- Gas cars will continue to become cheaper in the future as they lose popularity.
- Electric cars' batteries do not have any negative consequences for the environment.
- We do not have enough money for an electric car because we spent all our money on a vacation this year. - ✔️ If something is better for the environment, then that counts in favor of choosing it.
Which argument would require a conjoint, hidden assumption to be paired with premise (1) when mapped?
- (1) We can either eat out at a restaurant or stay in. (2) We should not stay in. (3) So we should go out to a restaurant.
- (1) If it had rained last night, the sidewalk would still be wet. (2) But the sidewalk is dry. (3) So it must not have rained last night.
- (1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we should watch Movie A.
- (1) If we want to support a reasonable tax plan, we should vote for Candidate A. (2) We do want to support a reasonable tax plan. (3) So we should vote for Candidate A.
- ✔️ (1) Out of all the movies we could watch tonight, Movie A is the funniest. (2) Therefore, we should watch Movie A.
Map the given argument to help you understand its structure. Then, select which is a hidden assumption of the argument. (1) We really should be giving more foreign aid to developing nations. (2) It is desirable for the people of the world to have a more equal access to resources, and (3) our nation has more resources than developing nations do. (4) Foreign aid will help give them more equal access to resources. Additionally, (5) there will be more international trade in the future once those nations are further developed, and (6) foreign aid will help them further develop.
- In the past, international trade was not necessarily beneficial to developed nations.
- We should give more foreign aid to developing nations.
- Generosity is a virtue.
- It would be a good thing to increase international trade. - ✔️ It would be a good thing to increase international trade.
Map the given argument to help you understand its structure. Then, select which is a hidden assumption of the argument. (1) Over 70% of residents say that traffic congestion is a major problem in our city. (2) The research group that conducted that survey has a great track record, by the way. (3) And other nearby cities that have invested in transportation have seen significant economic benefits. (4) This all shows that it would be a good idea for our city to invest in transportation.
- Other nearby cities spent significant sums to build subway systems.
- Residents' levels of concern regarding transportation are higher than their concern regarding education, public safety, or public recreation.
- If other nearby cities benefited economically from investing in transportation, our city is likely to benefit as well.
- The research group has a perfect track record on surveys regarding economic issues in particular. - ✔️ If other nearby cities benefited economically from investing in transportation, our city is likely to benefit as well.
Professor Smith fell asleep during class today. So Professor Smith is probably a bad teacher. Which missing premise best completes the above argument?
- Some former students have given Professor Smith bad reviews online.
- Experts agree that falling asleep during class is a reliable sign of being a bad teacher.
- Professor Smith always gives me low grades even though I study hard.
- Experts agree that falling asleep during class is not a good teaching strategy. - ✔️ Experts agree that falling asleep during class is a reliable sign of being a bad teacher.
Quinn started eating donuts for breakfast every day. Consequently, Quinn is likely to gain weight. Which missing premise best completes the above argument?
- Donuts are not healthy.
- Nutritionists have found that eating donuts for breakfast causes weight gain.
- Breakfast is the most important meal of the day.
- When I started eating donuts for breakfast, I gained five pounds by the third day. - ✔️ Nutritionists have found that eating donuts for breakfast causes weight gain.
Which is the most plausible counterexample to the general moral principle that one should never lie?
- Telling a lie to save innocent lives
- Telling a lie to get out of trouble
- Telling a lie to avoid paying income tax
- Telling a lie to land a dream job - ✔️ Telling a lie to save innocent lives
A military veteran is engaged in a heated debate about national security with a reporter who has never served in the military. Which response best enables the veteran to undermine the reporter's argument?
- Pointing out that the premise of the reporter's argument is flawed
- Pointing out the reporter's well-known reputation for taking faulty positions
