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1. Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory 2.Howard Gardner’s blog, (Dated 1st September, 2020),where Robert J.Sternberg has written on ‘COVID-19 has truly taught us what intelligence is…’ and about the ability to adapt to the environment. 3. Interview an older adult about ageing process. 4.Locus of Control 5. Cattell’s 16 P.F 6. halo effect
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Albert Bandura proposed the Social Learning Theory in the 1960s. This theory is considered as a bridge between traditional models which believed individuals simply observe and imitate behaviour, and the later cognitive models which consider cognitive factors to play a key role in human decision-making. The traditional behaviourist model observes environmental stimulus, does not process it, and proceeds to imitate. The cognitive model intakes input from the environment, process it actively (mediational process), and then displays output behaviour, which may or may not be conformational to the input observed at the very start. Bandura's theory proposes that learning occurs through observations and interactions with other people, and at the same time is influenced by an individual’s own cognitive process, called meditational processes. These mediational processes occur after an individual observes behaviourand before /he makes a conscious decision to imitate it or not. Bandura made a note of 4 such mediational processes, namely attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Let us take a look at each of them. Note that all these processes occur between stimuli and imitation:
1. Attention To imitate a behaviour, a person must first of all be attracted to it, in order to register it and form a mental representation of the act that s/he is about to execute/undertake. Non-attention grabbing factors are simply ignored by the mind either immediately or in due course of time, and as such, cannot result in a coherently cognitive meditational process 2. Retention Out of all the things that grab an individual’s attention, not everything can be retained. An individual may find a behaviour attracting and may notice it, but may not retain it long enough to reproduce it. To be imitated demonstrated behaviour must be retained 3. Reproduction The willingness to reproduce could be there but on its own, it doesn’t count. The ability to reproduce along with the willingness to produce is needed. For example, a beggar might see a Mercedes ad and want to purchase the Mercedes, but his ability to reproduce said behaviour is non-existent 4. Motivation Motivation is a product of the consequences of the action an individual is about to perform. Negative connotations attached to certain behaviour will be non-motivating, while positive connotations on the doing of an action, such as rewards of some kind, will entice the observer to perform such action/s. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
Albert Bandura expanded his theory in 1986 to address the limitations of the theory with respect to multiple facets. SLT described behaviour solely in terms of either nature or nurture, thus restricting the complexity of human behaviour. It also failed to fill the gap of ‘What if there is no role model in a person’s life with respect to certain behaviour?’ The improvements in the renewed theory, termed as Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), we as such: Emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social reinforcement It considered an individual’s unique environment and also the uniqueness of each individual in acquiring and maintaining behaviour The concept of self efficacy, which Bandura explained as ‘’"how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospective situations" was added under SCT Interaction of individual, environment and behaviour formed the central concept of SCT, termed as ‘Reciprocal Determinism’ BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT Breakthroughs in observational learning power/influence among children and by extension, people at large, were made through the Bobo Doll Experiment. 72 children between 3-7 years of age were selected. 36 were of either gender. They were divided as such:24 children were put in a ‘Control Group’ meaning they are going to have no experiments done on them. Only their final behaviour will be below depicts the classification of the rest of the children:recorded for later observational comparison. The chart First Stage of the Experiment
impressed upon them a non-aggressive manner of expressing displeasure. Lastly, it was also found out that boys were generally more aggressive than girls. When all instances of aggression were added up, it was found that male children exhibited 270 aggressive actions – like shouting at the Bobo doll, hitting it with hammer, kicking the doll, or slapping it – as compared to 128 aggressive actions exhibited by females. Difference Between SCT and SLT SCT is a broader theory encompassing but also expanding SLT. This is obvious because of the fact both were propounded by Albert Bandura, with SCT being developed 2 to 3 decades later than SLT. Characteristics SCT SLT Definition Expanded form of Albert Bandura’s SLT; proposes human agency, observational learning, and a triadic reciprocal determinism Learning theory that proposes that learning occurs in the social context via observing the behaviour of model along with the consequences of that behaviour Proponents Albert Bandura Albert Bandura; Neil Miller and John Dollard; Julian Rotter; and Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers Core Concepts Human agencies; observational learning and meditational processes; triadic reciprocal determinism; self-efficacy Observational learning; reinforcement (direct and vicarious); identification Role of Cognitive Factors Important role in the acquisition and production of behaviour; equal to that of reinforcement and other environmental factors Less important in the process of learning Role of Reinforcement Important role in the acquisition and production of behaviour; equal to that of cognitive factors Plays a major role in the acquisition and production of behaviour Scope Broader scope; includes the conceptualization of human agency Limited to the learning process in the social context Applications of Social Learning Theory Social Learning Theory has practical applications in education and youth and adult development work. This theory would support youth programs that use mentorship or peer leadership models which rely on social modelling to teach youth about positive behaviours and to encourage healthy and positive decision making through modelling of those behaviours. It can also be used to help researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted through observational learning. This in turn can be leveraged to enforce positive
behaviour. Unfortunately, mass implementation of the same through movies and shows depict a harrowingly negative enforcement, speaking generally. Based on the theory and its application, do you think violence is contagious? Violence is a phenomenon driven by the brain, as the brain regulates and controls behaviours. The Social Learning Theory model clearly outlines the relation between stimuli and our own imitation and behaviour modelling around it, provided it passes through some meditational processes. Violence is no different. If the ramifications of violence seem pleasing to the individual, or conducive, then there is nothing to stop the individual from carrying out violent acts just as they would carry out any other action. We see violence causing violence in its most acute setting in cases of retaliations in gang violence and even in war. Papers such as this by NCBI also provide solid grounds upon which we can safely conclude that yes, violence is indeed contagious. Reference: Bandura's 4 Principles Of Social Learning Theory. (2021). Retrieved 23 March 2021, from https://www.teachthought.com/learning/principles-of-social-learning-theory/ Bobo doll experiment | Description, Methodology, Results, & Facts. (2021). Retrieved 23 March 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/event/Bobo-doll-experiment
Concept of Intelligence The term "intelligence quotient," or IQ, was first coined in the early 20th century by a German psychologist named William Stern. Psychologist Alfred Binet developed the very first intelligence tests to help the French government identify schoolchildren who needed extra academic assistance. Binet was the first to introduce the concept of mental age or a set of abilities that children of a certain age possess. Defining and classifying intelligence is extremely complicated. Theories of intelligence range from having one general intelligence, to certain primary mental abilities, and to multiple category-specific intelligences. As such, intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract reasoning, mental representation, problem solving, and decision making), the ability to learn, emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the environment effectively. The National Center for Biotechnology Information defines intelligence as follows: “Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience and to adapt to, shape, and select environments. Intelligence as measured by (raw scores on) conventional standardized tests varies across the lifespan, and also across generations. Intelligence can be understood in part in terms of the biology of the brain—especially with regard to the functioning in the prefrontal cortex—and also correlates with brain size, at least within humans.” The modern study of intelligence is often dated back to the work of Charles Spearman, who scientifically studied intelligence and proposed that it could be understood in terms of a general ability that pervaded all intellectual tasks, and specific abilities that were unique to each particular intellectual task. Theories of Intelligence In Brief Some of the major theories of intelligence emerging in the past 100 years are: a. General Intelligence Defined as a construct that is made up of different cognitive abilities. These abilities allow people to acquire knowledge and solve problems. This general mental ability is what underlies specific mental skills related to areas such as spatial, numerical, mechanical, and verbal abilities. The idea is that this general intelligence influences performance on all cognitive tasks. b. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities Thurstone identified a number of primary mental abilities that comprise intelligence, as opposed to one general factor. The seven primary mental abilities in Thurstone's model are verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, perceptual speed, memory, and inductive reasoning (Thurstone, as cited in Sternberg, 2003).
c. Crystallized Intelligence Crystallized intelligence refers to the accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills that are acquired throughout life.Crystallized intelligence is based upon facts and rooted in experiences. As we age and accumulate new knowledge and understanding, crystallized intelligence becomes stronger. d. Fluid Intelligence Raymond Cattell defined fluid intelligence as "the ability to perceive relationships independent of previous specific practice or instruction concerning those relationships."This aspect of intelligence involves the ability to solve problems and reason about things independent of previously existing knowledge. When you encounter an entirely new problem that cannot be solved with your existing knowledge, you must rely on fluid intelligence to solve it. e. Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory of Cognitive Abilities It provides a common framework and nomenclature for intelligence researchers to communicate their findings. The basic idea of CHC theory is that intelligence is both multidimensional and functionally integrated. In CHC theory, the dimensions of ability have a hierarchical structure, meaning that some have a broader scope than others. At the bottom of the hierarchy are specific abilities, which are tied to a specific task or test. Specific abilities are the only abilities that can be measured directly. Narrow abilities are clusters of highly correlated specific abilities. Broad abilities are clusters of narrow abilities that are mutually more correlated with each other than with abilities in other broad-ability clusters. Types of Intelligence: Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Following the work of Thurstone, American psychologist Howard Gardner built off the idea that there are multiple forms of intelligence. He proposed that there is no single intelligence, but rather distinct, independent multiple intelligences exist, each representing unique skills and talents relevant to a certain category. This was first highlighted in his 1983 book titled ‘ Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.’ Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth known as “existentialist intelligence.” The following table illustrates Gardner’s 8 proposed types of intelligence:
Differencesbetween Gardener’s multiple intelligence and Sternberg’s concept of intelligence Gardner (1983) believes there are seven forms of intelligence; Sternberg (1985) believes there are three forms of intelligences. Sternberg’s theory gets at what intelligence is. Gardner’s theory gets at how people use their intelligence in different ways. Sternberg’s 3 components are a part of each of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences. Gardner recognizes aspects of intelligence like kinesthetic, musical, and naturalist. Sternberg focuses primarily on elements of cognitive development that can be measured through somewhat traditional means (i.e. multiple choice and essay format). Similarities between Gardener’s multiple intelligence and Sternberg’s concept of intelligence Sternberg and Gardner (1982) summarized the theory of one general intelligence by stating "general intelligence can be understood componentially as deriving in part from the execution of general components in information processing behavior". Both believed that intelligence can be defined by a single factor. Whether that single factor be termed positive manifold, neural processing speed, or g, the complexities of the human mind and its processes can be reduced to a single factor, defined as intelligence. While Gardner's and Sternberg's theories differ in many ways, they both focus on abilities that involve common sense, social competencies and self-awareness. Both Gardner's and Sternberg's theories were born from what they viewed as missing elements from previous
definitions of intelligence. Each theorist considered aspects of practical intelligence and creativity as important predictors of life success. Each theorist also considered unique ways to measure intelligence with a focus on a broadened view of capturing one's true abilities. Sternberg’s article related to Covid 19 Sternberg’s article in asserts that COVID-19 has lucidly demonstrated that IQ tests and other similar testssuch as the SAT or ACT, are not valid indicators of the type/s of intelligence that actually matters. Sternberg reiterates that intelligence is the ability to adapt to the environment and is not just about an inert ability to take tests.The active deployment of the ability to solve real-life problems is a must. He further adds that mere IQ tests or mathematical verbal tests are not the right indicators of true intelligence. Dealing with real-life complexities and adapting to the environment and work towards improving it is intelligence. Mere scores in the exam dictate nothing. Intelligent people are those who have adapted to wearing masks, washing hands and following social distancing during the pandemic; the so-called intellectuals who don’t follow these rules are not intelligent. He stressed that universities and colleges should teach students to apply their knowledge in the real world rather than just scoring marks and earning money. In his experiment he gave the participants real life problems and observed how they solved it. That is true intelligence according to Sternberg. Learning Outcomes From Covid Article Change is inevitable, and those who are able to adapt to it adequately are the truly intelligent ones. IQ is not determined on a piece of paper through some tests. It is the applicability of intelligence through real-life actions that constitute real intelligence. The best case at hand is the coronavirus pandemic. People were ordained to wear masks, wash hands frequently and adhere to social distancing norms. These alterations were life changing, but necessary for survival. People who adapted and showed real change in terms of right action during these times are more intelligent than people with high IQ scores taking incorrect courses of action. Practical and emotional intelligence are the keys to survival. Conclusion Gardner and Sternberg have opened enormous possibilities of gauging intelligence. This is an indicator for teaching faculty to broaden their horizon of thoughts and approach with respect to what they constitute as intelligence in a child. They must exercise the entire width of a school’s offering to a child in terms of sport, extra-curricular activities in the form of logical and creative excursions, etc. to develop a wholesome intelligence within the child. Aspects such as social and emotional intelligence must not be ignored. Most importantly, applicability must be stressed upon, as mere theory can never constitute real intelligence. Facilitation of such a framework will result in a fully developed intellectual student who is responsible at the both the social and emotional levels. No doubt such a framework will aid the student in his academic performance and development too.
Interview of an Old Person Concept of old age: Old age, also called senescence, in human beings, the final stage of the normal life span. Definitions of old age are not consistent from the standpoints of biology, demography (conditions of mortality and morbidity), employment and retirement, and sociology. For statistical and public administrative purposes, however, old age is frequently defined as 60 or 65 years of age or older. Elderly people often have limited regenerative abilities and are more susceptible to disease, syndromes, injuries, and sickness than younger adults. The elderly also faces other social issues around retirement, loneliness, and ageism. Old age is not a definite biological stage, as the chronological age denoted as "old age" varies culturally and historically. Old age issues: The distinguishing characteristics of old age are both physical and mental. The marks of old age are so unlike the marks of middle age that legal scholar Richard Posner suggests that, as an individual transitions into old age, he/she can be thought of as different persons "time- sharing" the same identity. These marks do not occur at the same chronological age for everyone. Also, they occur at different rates and order for different people. Marks of old age can easily vary between people of the same chronological age. A basic mark of old age that affects both body and mind is "slowness of behavior". This "slowing down principle" finds a correlation between advancing age and slowness of reaction and physical and mental task performance. However, studies from Buffalo University and Northwestern University have shown that the elderly are a happier age group than their younger counterparts. Physical marks of old age include the following: Bone and joint. Old bones are marked by "thinning and shrinkage". This might result in a loss of height (about two inches (5 cm) by age 80), a stooping posture in many people, and a greater susceptibility to bone and joint diseases such as osteoarthritis and osteoporosis. Chronic diseases. Some older persons have at least one chronic condition and many have multiple conditions e.g. uncontrolled hypertension, arthritis, and heart disease. problems. Dental problems. May have less saliva and less ability for oral hygiene in old age which increases the chance of tooth decay and infection. Digestive system. About 40% of the time, old age is marked by digestive disorders such as difficulty in swallowing, inability to eat enough and to absorb nutrition, constipation, and bleeding. Essential tremor (ET) is an uncontrollable shaking in a part of the upper body. It is more common in the elderly and symptoms worsen with age. Eyesight. Presbyopia can occur by age 50 and it hinders reading especially of small print in low lighting. Falls. Old age spells risk for injury from falls that might not cause injury to a younger person. Gait change. Some aspects of gait normally change with old age. Gait velocity slows after age 70.
Hair usually becomes grayer and might become thinner. Many men are affected by balding, and women enter menopause. Hearing. By age 75 and older, encounter impairments in hearing. Mobility impairment or loss. "Impairment in mobility effects of those between 65 and 74. Skin loses elasticity, becomes drier, and more lined and wrinkled. Voice. In old age, vocal cords weaken and vibrate more slowly. This results in a weakened, breathy voice that is sometimes called an "old person's voice". Mental: Mental marks of old age include the following: Adaptable describes most people in their old age. Despite the stressfulness of old age, they are described as "agreeable" and "accepting". However, old age dependence induces feelings of incompetence and worthlessness in a minority. Depressed mood.[83] According to Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon (2012), old age is a risk factor for depression caused by prejudice (i.e., "DE prejudice"). When people are prejudiced against the elderly and then become old themselves, their anti-elderly prejudice turns inward, causing depression. Increasing fear of health loss. Reduced mental and cognitive ability may afflict old age. Memory loss is common in old age due to the decrease in speed of information being encoded, stored, and retrieved. It takes more time to learn the same amount of new information. Dementia and Alzheimer’s is a common disorder among old age. Common conditions in older age include hearing loss, cataracts, and refractive errors, back and neck pain and osteoarthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, depression, and dementia. Furthermore, as people age, they are more likely to experience several conditions at the same time. Factors influencing Healthy Ageing: Although some of the variations in older people’s health are genetic, much is due to people’s physical and social environments – including their homes, neighbourhoods, and communities, as well as their personal characteristics – such as their sex, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. These factors start to influence the ageing process at an early stage. The environments that people live in as children – or even as developing foetuses – combined with their personal characteristics, have long-term effects on how they age. Environments also have an important influence on the development and maintenance of healthy behaviours. Maintaining healthy behaviours throughout life, particularly eating a balanced diet, engaging in regular physical activity, and refraining from tobacco use all contribute to reducing the risk of non-communicable diseases and improving physical and mental capacity. Behaviours also remain important in older age. Strength training to maintain muscle mass and good nutrition can both help to preserve cognitive function, delay care dependency, and reverse frailty.. Challenges in responding to population ageing: Diversity in older age : There is no ‘typical’ older person. Some 80-year-olds have physical and mental capacities similar to many 20-year-olds. Other people experience significant declines in physical and mental capacities at much younger ages. A comprehensive public health response must address this wide range of older people’s experiences and needs. Health inequities: The diversity seen in older age is not random. A large part arises from people’s physical and social environments and the impact of these environments on their opportunities and health behaviour. The relationship we have with our environments is
means more experiences with results. In normal situation old age person don’t get panic easily and always have a way out. It also means binding many people at a time. In few decades there is a drastic change in life of old people. They have started maintaining a good amount for themselves. Keep on earning and don’t want to get burden of their family. They also want to have enjoy their lives peacefully. Ageing can change person little but if he\she has clear choice about what they want to be than nothing can affect them. There must be high and low points. If you are determine about it nobody can change you. Family profile: The subject name is Salma. She has 2 brothers and 2 sisters. She is elder sibilings in family. She has done MA in economics. She is retired college professor now. Her father was a poet and teacher who teaches English to his students as well as kids. Because of his father’s teaching the subject and their sibilings can speak many languages like hindi, mararthi, English and their mother tongue Konkani. Her mother was housewife and expert cook. All the sibilings in family are educated. Her sister is an engineer and brother works in government offices. All the sibilings and subject belong to working middle class family. Thoughts on ageing, have they change over years? Yes, as per the subject’s answer. Many people think that old people can’t do more physical activities, hard work, earn for themselves and mental activities. But my subject proves this wrong. After retirement she started to do things what she likes. She likes to make crochet purse, making laddoo from her grandmother recipe, she takes care of her grandchild very well, she loves to make plants. I saw a little garden in their balcony. She fusion the recipe of her grandmothers laddoo and send it the family members. In last 4 years she settled her laddoo business very well. After retirement she’s earning. When I asked about why is she doing business now? She told me it was her dream to be a businesswoman but due to busy schedule she couldn’t fulfil her wish of making laddoo but now she’s free from all responsibility so, fulfilling her dream now. Promote wellness: I have spent whole day with subject. So I saw her diet for breakfast lunch and dinner. Whole day I saw her eating only healthy and nutritious food. When I asked her about maintaining health she replied that she was following it since young days. Even in holidays she gets up on fixed time. She does all basic exercise needed in the age. At the growing age the capacity of working affects so she cares more about her health. She does the regular body check up. She guides her colleagues about how to be perfect in growing age. She’s active socially too and maintains healthy relationships and her own mental wellness. View on healthcare: My subject told her view on physical challenges. Because of making laddoo she’s having joints pain because of this pain her mobility reduced so she feels lonely sometimes. She took someone’s help for making laddoo. She regularly does yoga and took medicine as per doctor’s guidance and now she is better. She keeps in touch with relatives, friends and neighbours. Because of all the work she feels stressed or tired sometimes so she takes a break. She went on holidays with her families for change and enjoyed her life. She told me that she is blessed to have such a good family who take care of her. She shared with me some of her friends neglected by their families and they are stressed or depressed now. She helps
them to be out of this situation. All her friends are regularly in contact or meet in every month. Stereo type towards old age: Ageism includes stereotypes, myths, outright disdain and dislike, avoidance of contact, and discrimination in housing, employment, and services of many kinds. There is stereotype that old people forget everything. They have low memory. But my subject is still sharp and has vast memory. She told me everything about her childhood and her college days and family, friends and job. She is talkative and lively person. There is another stereotype that old people don’t earn but my subject earns very well now. There is another myth that old people have disability but still my subject has no disability. She doesn’t like to be called old person. She told me that if you think you are old than you will become old. Her husband teases her calling oldie and they still fight like cute romantic couple. Which I really enjoyed. Summary: [1] I am a person being satisfied with what I have and worries do not worry me much. Being eldest sibling I remember my role of 'didi' taking care of younger siblings. I mean I could never ignore my younger brothers while going to play or being with friends. I cannot forget the fear of my baba's scolding for incomplete homework and school note books. I think very few children get the chance to enjoy outings, going for dramas and eating in hotels that I got with baba and my siblings and the only price I had to pay was learning English grammar from him while being out with him. Also I can never forget the feeling of being choreographer while teaching dance to my younger sisters though I did not know the term 'choreographer' at that age. Self-satisfied Accountable, Learning process, Teaching art. [2] For youths problems means not being allowed to do what one wants to do or being forced to do that one doesn't want to do. It is restriction on freedom to live as one wants, but me being an obedient child never considered the restrictions as problems. I always believed that restrictions and advises from parents and teachers are for my benefit. Restriction, Obediant, [3] Reading books, seeing art films, trying new non konkani dishes and stitching clothes, making laddoo and crochet purse gave me immense pleasure. Practiced for interest and enjoyment. [4] I cannot single out a particular song. But I
