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1.0 INTRODUCTION TO MATERIAL SCIENCE
1.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize. Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation, and food production— virtually every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials. Historically, the development and advancement of societies have been intimately tied to the members’ ability to produce and manipulate materials to fill their needs. In fact, early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development (Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age). The earliest humans had access to only a very limited number of materials, those that occur naturally: stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. With time they discovered techniques for producing materials that had properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new materials included pottery and various metals. Furthermore, it was discovered that the properties of a material could be altered by heat treatments and by the addition of other substances. At this point, materials utilization was totally a selection process that involved deciding from a given, rather limited set of materials the one best suited for an application by virtue of its characteristics. It was not until relatively recent times that scientists came to understand the relationships between the structural elements of materials and their properties. This knowledge, acquired over approximately the past 100 years, has empowered them to fashion, to a large degree, the characteristics of materials. Thus, tens of thousands of different materials have evolved with rather specialized characteristics that meet the needs of our modern and complex society; these include metals, plastics, glasses, and fibers. The development of many technologies that make our existence so comfortable has been intimately associated with the accessibility of suitable materials. Advancement in the understanding of a material type is often the forerunner to the stepwise progression of a technology. For example, automobiles would not have been possible without the availability of inexpensive steel or some other comparable substitute. In our contemporary era, sophisticated electronic devices rely on components that are made from what are called semiconducting materials.
1.2 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science and engineering into materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines. Strictly speaking, “materials science” involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, “materials engineering” is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties. From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new products or systems using existing materials, and/or to develop techniques for processing materials. Most graduates in materials programs are trained to be both materials scientists and materials engineers. “Structure” is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. In brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another. The next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is termed “microscopic,” meaning that which is subject to direct observation using some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye are termed “macroscopic.” The notion of “property” deserves elaboration. While in service use, all materials are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example, a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal surface will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of properties are made independent of material shape and size. Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different responses. Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples include elastic modulus and strength. For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and
Thus, the structures of these three specimens are different in terms of crystal boundaries and pores, which affect the optical transmittance properties. Furthermore, each material was produced using a different processing technique. And, of course, if optical transmittance is an important parameter relative to the ultimate in-service application, the performance of each material will be different. Figure 1.2 Photograph of three thin disk specimens of aluminum oxide, which have been placed over a printed page in order to demonstrate their differences in light-transmittance characteristics. The disk on the left is transparent (that is, virtually all light that is reflected from the page passes through it), whereas the one in the center is translucent (meaning that some of this reflected light is transmitted through the disk). And, the disk on the right is opaque—i.e., none of the light passes through it. These differences in optical properties are a consequence of differences in structure of these materials, which have resulted from the way the materials were processed.
1.3 WHY STUDY MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING?
Why do we study materials? Many applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, Aeronautical, civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem involving materials. Examples might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. Of course, materials scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the investigation and design of materials. Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the many thousands that are available. There are several criteria on which the final decision is normally based. First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate the properties required of the material. On only rare occasions does a material possess the maximum or ideal combination of properties. Thus, it may be necessary to trade off one characteristic for another. The classic example involves strength and ductility; normally, a material having a high strength will have only a limited ductility. In such cases a reasonable compromise between two or more properties may be necessary. A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may occur during service operation. For example, significant reductions in mechanical strength may result from exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive environments. Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the finished product cost? A material may be found that has the ideal set of properties but is prohibitively expensive. Here again, some compromise is inevitable. The cost of a finished piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the desired shape. The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and structure– property relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the more proficient and confident he or she will be to make judicious materials choices based on these criteria.
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates.
For example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity (Figure 1.7) and heat, and are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous appearance. In addition, some of the metals (viz., Fe, Co, and Ni) have desirable magnetic properties. Figure 1.8 is a photograph that shows several common and familiar objects that are made of metallic materials.
Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, some of the common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or alumina,Al 2 O 3 ), silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO 2 ), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si 3 N 4 ), and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics —those composed of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement, and glass. With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively stiff and strong—stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals (Figures 1.4 and 1.5). In addition, ceramics are typically very hard. Figure 1.4 Bar-chart of room temperature stiffness (i.e., elastic modulus) values for various metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
Figure 1.5 Bar-chart of room temperature strength (i.e., tensile strength) values for various metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials. On the other hand, they are extremely brittle (lack ductility), and are highly susceptible to fracture (Figure 1.6). These materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and electricity (i.e., have low electrical conductivities, Figure 1.7), and are more resistant to high temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. With regard to optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque (Figure 1.2), and some of the oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe 3 O 4 ) exhibit magnetic behavior.
Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements. Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that has a backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber. These materials typically have low densities (Figure 1.3), whereas their mechanical characteristics are generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials—they are not as stiff nor as strong as these other material types (Figures 1.4 and 1.5). However, on the basis of their low densities, many times their stiffnesses and strengths on a per mass basis are comparable to the metals and ceramics. In addition, many of the polymers are extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into complex shapes. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of environments. One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some instances, limits their use. Furthermore, they have low electrical conductivities (Figure 1.7) and are nonmagnetic. Figure 1.8 Familiar objects that are made of metals and metal alloys: (from left to right) silverware (fork and knife), scissors, coins, a gear, a wedding ring, and a nut and bolt.
Figure 1.9 Common objects that are made of ceramic materials: scissors, a china tea cup, a building brick, a floor tile, and a glass vase. Figure 1.10 Several common objects that are made of polymeric materials: plastic tableware (spoon, fork, and knife), billiard balls, a bicycle helmet, two dice, a lawnmower wheel (plastic hub and rubber tire), and a plastic milk carton.
Composites
A composite is composed of two (or more) individual materials, which come from the categories discussed above—viz., metals, ceramics, and polymers. The design goal of a composite is to achieve a combination of properties that is not displayed by any single material, and also to incorporate the best characteristics of each of the component materials. A large number of composite types exist that are represented by different combinations of metals, ceramics, and polymers. Furthermore, some naturally-occurring materials are also considered to be composites—for example, wood and bone. However, most of those we consider in our discussions are synthetic (or man-made) composites. One of the most common and familiar composites is fiberglass, in which small glass fibers are embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester). The glass fibers are relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile (but also weak and flexible). Thus, the resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, (Figures 1.4 and 1.5) flexible, and ductile. In addition, it has a low density (Figure 1.3). Another of these technologically important materials is the “carbon fiber reinforced polymer” (or “CFRP”) composite—carbon fibers that are embedded within a polymer. These materials are stiffer and stronger than the glass fiber-reinforced materials (Figures 1.4 and 1.5), yet they are more expensive. The CFRP composites are used in some aircraft and aerospace applications, as well as high-tech sporting equipment (e.g., bicycles, golf clubs, tennis rackets, and skis/snowboards).
1.5 ADVANCED MATERIALS
Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are sometimes termed advanced materials. By high technology we mean a device or product that operates or functions using relatively intricate and sophisticated principles; examples include electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players, etc.), computers, fiber-optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry. These advanced materials are typically traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced, and, also newly developed, high-performance materials. Furthermore, they may be of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers), and are normally expensive. Advanced materials include semiconductors, biomaterials, and what we may term “materials of
the future” (that is, smart materials and nanoengineered materials), which we discuss below. The properties and applications of a number of these advanced materials—for example, materials that are used for lasers, integrated circuits, magnetic information storage, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and fiber optics.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical conductors (viz. metals and metal alloys) and insulators (viz. ceramics and polymers)—Figure 1.7. Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are extremely sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial regions. Semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally revolutionized the electronics and computer industries (not to mention our lives) over the past three decades.
Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body for replacement of diseased or damaged body parts. These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse biological reactions). All of the above materials—metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, and semiconductors—may be used as biomaterials. For example, some of the biomaterials that are utilized in artificial hip replacements.
Materials of the Future
Smart Materials
Smart (or intelligent ) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being developed that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies. The adjective “smart” implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their environments and then respond to these changes in predetermined manners— traits that are also found in living organisms. In addition, this “smart” concept is being extended to rather sophisticated systems that consist of both smart and traditional materials. Components of a smart material (or system) include some type of sensor (that detects an input signal), and an actuator (that performs a responsive and adaptive function). Actuators may be
nanometer (10-^9 m)—as a rule, less than 100 nanometers (equivalent to approximately 500 atom diameters). One example of a material of this type is the carbon nanotube.
