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Chapter 8 – Memory Information Processing Encoding – the act of acquiring information and putting it into memory. Storage – retaining information in memory over time. Retrieval - recovering information from memory storage. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Three-stage Processing Model of Memory
1. Sensory memory – short-lived memory process 2. Short-Term and Working Memory Short-term memory – receives information that was perceived in sensory memory Working memory - part of the memory system that allows us to mentally manipulate information being held in short-term memory 3. Long-Term Memory – a relatively long-lasting stage of memory whose capacity is believed to be unlimited Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode Some information we process automatically, with little to no effort. Other information is more difficult. Effortful processing – encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. One way to encode the information in this chapter is rehearsal – conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage. Just remember the limitations of rehearsal. Serial position effect – U-shaped pattern of performance on a free recall task when recall is plotted as a function of word position. Free recall task – participants are given a list of 20 or more words, one at a time, and then asked to recall the entire list after the last word has been presented. Primacy effect - relatively good recall of the first items/primary items on the list More time to rehearse that information Recency effect - relatively good recall of the last/most recent items on the list Items are easily retrieved from short-term store
What We Encode Memory codes – mental representations of physical stimuli Acoustic encoding – storing sounds Visual encoding – storing images Semantic encoding – storing meaning Organizing Information for Encoding Information will be easier to encode if we can organize it meaningfully. For example, chunking – organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often based on meaning Storage: Retaining Information Sensory Memory - Almost a direct representation of actual sensory attributes of the stimulus. Made up of : Iconic memory - visual memory (200-300 milliseconds) Echoic memory - auditory memory (lasts 1-2 seconds, up to 5 seconds) Working/Short-term Memory - limited capacity. Miller's Magic 7+ 2 - People can process about 7 units of information in their short-term memory at a time (with a range of 5 to 9). Short-term memory also has a limited duration - it lasts about 30 seconds. Long-term Memory – a relatively long-lasting stage of memory whose capacity to store new information is believed to be unlimited. The knowledge we store in LTM affects our perceptions of the world, and influences what information in the environment we attend to. LTM provides the framework to which we attach new knowledge. Types of Long Term Memory Episodic memories – events experienced in a specific time/place Semantic memories – facts/concepts not linked to a particular time Procedural memories – motor skills/habits
Relearning – a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time. Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity Retrieval cues - stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory. Encoding specificity principle – ability of a cue to aid retrieval depends on the degree to which it taps into information that was encoded at the time of the original learning If the way information is encoded and the way it is retrieved are similar, remembering the information will be easier. Context and State Dependence Context-dependent memory – memory that can be helped or hindered by similarities or differences between the context in which it is learned and the context in which it is recalled. Physical environment acts as a retrieval cue. State-dependent memory – memory that is aided or impeded by a person’s internal state at encoding and retrieval. Your psychological state acts as a retrieval cue. Mood congruence effects – memory is helped or hindered by the match between your mood at the time of encoding and at the time of retrieval Forgetting and Memory Construction Theories of Forgetting Encoding failure - If perceived information is not successfully encoded by working memory for entry into long-term memory, the information will be lost. Insufficient time to encode, inattention or lack or rehearsal, or distraction/interruption Storage decay - forgetting is caused by physical changes in a memory trace that weaken it or reduce the amount of information that is stored in it.
Retrieval Failure Theory - forgetting occurs when the correct retrieval cues are not produced to get at the contents of memory. The clearest sign of this type of forgetting is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Interference theory - forgetting is caused by competition from other events that are encoded in to memory, which in turn makes a given memory one is trying to retrieve more difficult to access. Interference theory points to two potential sources of forgetting, known as proactive interference and retroactive interference. Proactive interference – prior events can render subsequently-encoded memories more difficult to retrieve Retroactive interference – later events can render previously-encoded memories more difficult to retrieve. New information interferes with prior learning. Motivated-Forgetting Theory - mental mechanisms that make us forget unpleasant or painful facts. Freud suggested a process by which people reject, or suppress in their unconscious, certain memories associated with past traumas that would be unbearable to remember. Psychoanalysis is based on the idea that such suppressed memories have not really been forgotten and can be brought back to patients’ conscious awareness. Suppression – a person consciously tries to forget a painful memory, but is still aware that the event occurred. Repression – literally removes the unpleasant memories, making the person unaware that the event occurred. Organic Causes of Memory Loss Traumatic brain injury – occurs when the skull makes a sudden collision with another object. This can cause serious injury to the brain. The most common causes are motor vehicle and bicycle accidents, but can also include sports injuries, falls, or acts of violence, such as a gunshot wound or blow to the head. Head injuries that damage the brain can be one of two types. closed head injury – skull remains intact Impact causes delicate brain tissues to hit inner surface of the skull penetrating head injury – object penetrates the skull or skull is fractured bone fragments, foreign material, or dirt can get into brain, damage brain tissue, and cause infection. Amnesia – loss of memory as a result of brain injury or trauma.
Constructive Processes in Memory Failures Constructive process – organizing and shaping of information during encoding and retrieval that may cause memory errors and distortions. A lot of people think we can store an event in our memory and it will always be there; and that if we forget it, the exact memory is still there, but we just can't retrieve it at the moment. According to research, however, this is not the case. In fact, our stored memories can change over time, and some may not be remembered at all. When we are trying to remember an event, we are not necessarily remembering accurately, we are re- constructing it based on whatever fragments of our memory are left of that particular event. Because we don’t record an exact version of what happened in long-term memory, we tend to make some common memory mistakes: Source amnesia – AKA source confusion or source misattribution – inability to recall the source of information experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Sleeper effect – tendency to initially discount information from an unreliable source; later, we consider it more trustworthy because the source is forgotten. Eyewitness testimony - We tend to think that “seeing is believing” – but this may not always be the case. When people who witness an event are later exposed to new and misleading information about it, their recollections often become distorted. Misinformation effect – incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event In one example, participants viewed a simulated automobile accident at an intersection with a stop sign. After the viewing, half the participants received a suggestion that the traffic sign was a yield sign. When asked later what traffic sign they remembered seeing at the intersection, those who had been given the suggestion tended to claim that they had seen a yield sign. Repressed Memories How can we determine if memories of childhood abuse are true or false? Without corroboration, it is very difficult to differentiate between false memories and true ones. Also, in many cases, some memories were contrary to physical evidence, such as explicit and detailed recollections of rape and abortion when medical examination confirmed virginity. How is it possible for people to acquire elaborate and confident false memories?
