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Midlands Tech Bio 210 Final Exam complete Study Guide pH - Measure of hydrogen ion concentration; 0-14 scale; <7 acidic; 7 neutral; >7 basic (alkaline). Ionic bond - Bond formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another producing charged ions that attract each other. Proton - Positive charge found in the nucleus. Monosaccharide - Basic single-unit sugar (glucose, fructose). Disaccharide - Two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis (sucrose, lactose). Buffer - Resist abrupt and large swings in pH by releasing H+ when pH rises (basic) or binding H+ when pH falls (acidic). Covalent bond - Chemical bond formed by sharing of electron pairs between atoms. Electron - Negative charge found in the outer shell of an atom. Polysaccharide - Many monosaccharides joined together (glycogen, starch). Glycerol - 3-carbon alcohol backbone of triglycerides that bonds with fatty acids to form lipids. Acid - Substance that increases H+ concentration when added to solution (proton donor).
Hydrogen bond - Weak attraction between hydrogen atom bound to an electronegative atom (O or N) and another electronegative atom. Neutron - Neutral charge found in the nucleus. Fatty acid - Long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group; components of triglycerides and phospholipids. Nucleic acid - DNA and RNA; polymers of nucleotides that store and transfer genetic information. Base - Substance that decreases H+ concentration when added to solution (proton acceptor). Anion - Negatively charged ion. Organic - Molecules that contain carbon and hydrogen; associated with living things. Inorganic - Molecules that do not contain carbon-hydrogen bonds; often simple molecules like water, salts, acids, and bases. Enzyme - Lower the activation energy for a reaction; active site must be exposed to solution; can catalyze sequential steps in a metabolic pathway. Cation - Positively charged ion. Atomic number - Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom; determines element identity. Atomic weight - Sum of protons + neutrons (approximate atomic mass).
Plasma membrane - Flexible outer membrane; semi-permeable; separates ICF from ECF. Membrane lipids - Phospholipid bilayer. Cell junctions - Hold cells together. Fluid mosaic model - Membrane with embedded proteins. Integral proteins - Inserted into membrane; most span the entirety of the membrane. Peripheral proteins - Found on surface; support membrane and cell connections. Transport proteins - Facilitate movement of molecules across membrane. Receptors - Detect chemical signals. Enzymes (membrane) - Catalyze reactions at membrane surface. Cell recognition (glycoproteins) - Identify cells; self vs non-self. Attachment proteins - Anchor cells or cytoskeleton to extracellular structures. Glycocalyx - Short chains of sugars on cell surface; bio-marker for recognition; immune self vs non-self. mRNA - Carries coded information from DNA to ribosome in cytoplasm.
tRNA - Transfers amino acids to ribosome according to codon-anticodon pairing. rRNA - Along with proteins makes up ribosomes for translation. RNA polymerase - Enzyme that separates DNA strands and synthesizes mRNA. Codon - Three-base mRNA sequence coding for a specific amino acid. Anticodon - Three-base tRNA sequence complementary to codon on mRNA. Transcription - Process of encoding DNA into mRNA. Translation - Process of decoding mRNA to assemble polypeptides. Prophase - Chromatin condenses forming chromosomes; nuclear envelope breaks down; mitotic spindle forms. Metaphase - Chromosomes line up at metaphase plate. Anaphase - Centromeres split; sister chromatids pulled to poles by kinetochores. Telophase - Chromosomes unfurl into chromatin; nuclei reappear; spindle disappears. Cytokinesis - Cleavage furrow forms; cell divides into two daughter cells.
Osmotic pressure - Pressure required to prevent water movement across membrane. Four major tissue types - Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous. Simple squamous - Found in kidneys and lungs; endothelium lines blood vessels; mesothelium forms serous membranes. Ciliated pseudostratified columnar - Lines most respiratory tract; contains goblet cells and cilia. Stratified squamous - Protects underlying tissues in areas of abrasion (skin, oral cavity, esophagus). Simple columnar - Single layer of tall cells; absorption and secretion; lines digestive tract; microvilli increase surface area. Simple cuboidal - Single layer cube-shaped cells; secretion and absorption; small ducts of glands; kidney tubules. Fibroblasts - Secrete fibers and ground substance of connective tissue. Chondroblasts - Secrete cartilage matrix during growth. Chondrocytes - Mature cartilage cells in lacunae. Osteoblasts - Deposit new bone matrix. Osteocytes - Mature bone cells in lacunae.
Osteoclasts - Resorb bone; secrete enzymes and H+ to digest matrix. Hemocytoblasts - Blood-forming stem cells in bone marrow. Adipocytes - Fat cells storing triglycerides; found in hypodermis. Ligaments - Connect bone to bone. Tendons - Connect muscle to bone. Exocrine glands - Secrete substances onto surface via ducts. Endocrine glands - Secrete hormones into blood; ductless. Collagen fibers - Provide strength and resiliency. Elastin fibers - Provide stretch and recoil. Skeletal muscle - Striated, multinucleated, voluntary; attached to bones. Smooth muscle - One nucleus, no striations; thick filaments fewer; contains calmodulin; involuntary. Cardiac muscle - Striated, usually one nucleus; intercalated discs; involuntary; heart. Epidermis - Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium; avascular. Dermis - Fibrous connective tissue; vascular; papillary (areolar), reticular (dense irregular).
Pectoral girdle - Clavicle and scapula. Pelvic girdle - Paired coxal bones. Hyoid bone - Neck; does not articulate with other bones; tongue/neck muscle attachment. Pituitary gland - Located in sella turcica of sphenoid. Structural joint types - Fibrous, Cartilaginous, Synovial. Functional joint types - Synarthrosis (immovable), Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), Diarthrosis (freely movable). Excitation-contraction coupling - AP along sarcolemma and T-tubules; Ca²⁺ release from SR; contraction occurs. Cross-bridge cycle - Formation, power stroke, detachment (ATP binds), cocking (ATP hydrolysis). Motor unit - Motor neuron + all muscle fibers it innervates. Reflex arc - Receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector. CNS - Brain & spinal cord. PNS - Cranial & spinal nerves. Autonomic subdivisions - Sympathetic and parasympathetic.
Neuroglia (CNS) - Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Microglia, Ependymal cells. Mechanoreceptors - Detect mechanical forces. Thermoreceptors - Detect temperature. Photoreceptors - Detect light. Chemoreceptors - Detect chemicals. Nociceptors - Detect pain. Neurotransmitter at neuromuscular junction - Acetylcholine. Alpha-blockers - Block vasoconstriction; cause vasodilation. Beta-blockers - Reduce heart rate & contractility; block β-adrenergic receptors.
