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Neural Control and Coordination, Study notes of Zoology

Zoology

A comprehensive overview of the neural system and its role in the coordination of various bodily functions. It delves into the structure and function of neurons, the generation and conduction of nerve impulses, and the organization of the central nervous system, including the brain and its different parts. The document also explores the mechanisms of vision and hearing, highlighting the specialized sensory receptors and the neural pathways involved in these processes. This information is crucial for understanding the complex interplay between the nervous system and the coordination of physiological processes in the human body.

Typology: Study notes

2023/2024

Available from 09/20/2024

priyanshu-kumar-sharma
priyanshu-kumar-sharma 🇺🇸

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Neural control and
coordination
Coordinationis the process through which two or more organs interact
and complement the form of each other.
Neural systemprovides an organized network of point to point
connection for quick coordination.The endocrinesystem provides
chemical integration through hormones.
Neural systemof animals is composed of specialized cells called neuron,
which can detect, receive and transmit different kinds of stimuli. In hydra
neural system is composed of network of neuron. In insects it consists of
brain and a number of ganglia. Vertebrates have highly developed neural
system.
Central nervous system (CNS)includes brain and spinal cord. It is the
site for information processing and control.
Peripheral nervous systemincludes all nerves associated with CNS.
There are two types of nerve fibres-
Afferent fibres- transmit impulses from tissue/organ to CNS.
Efferent fibres- transmit regulatory impulses from CNS to concerned
peripheral organs.
Somatic neural systemsrelay impulses from CNS to skeletal
muscles.Autonomic neural systemtransmits impulses from CNS to
involuntary system and smooth muscles.
Neuron as Structural and Functional Unit of Neural System
Neuron is made up of three major parts-cell body,dendriteandaxon.
Cell body contains cytoplasm, cell organelles and Nissl’s granules. Short
fibres projecting out from cell body is called dendrites. The axon is long
fibre having branched structure at the end that terminates into knob like
structure calledsynaptic knob.
Based on number of axon and dendrites neuron are of three types-
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Neural control and

coordination

Coordination is the process through which two or more organs interact and complement the form of each other.  Neural system provides an organized network of point to point connection for quick coordination. The endocrine system provides chemical integration through hormones.  Neural system of animals is composed of specialized cells called neuron, which can detect, receive and transmit different kinds of stimuli. In hydra neural system is composed of network of neuron. In insects it consists of brain and a number of ganglia. Vertebrates have highly developed neural system.  Central nervous system (CNS) includes brain and spinal cord. It is the site for information processing and control.  Peripheral nervous system includes all nerves associated with CNS. There are two types of nerve fibres-  Afferent fibres- transmit impulses from tissue/organ to CNS.  Efferent fibres- transmit regulatory impulses from CNS to concerned peripheral organs. Somatic neural systems relay impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles. Autonomic neural system transmits impulses from CNS to involuntary system and smooth muscles. Neuron as Structural and Functional Unit of Neural System Neuron is made up of three major parts- cell body , dendrite and axon.  Cell body contains cytoplasm, cell organelles and Nissl’s granules. Short fibres projecting out from cell body is called dendrites. The axon is long fibre having branched structure at the end that terminates into knob like structure called synaptic knob.  Based on number of axon and dendrites neuron are of three types-

  1. Multipolar – one axon and two or more dendrite found in cerebral cortex.
  2. Bipolar – one axon and one dendrite found in retina of eyes.
  3. Unipolar – cell body with only one axon found in embryonic stage.  There are two types of axon-  Myelinated – fibres are enveloped with Schwann cells to form myelin sheath around the axon. The gap between two myelin sheaths is called nodes of Ranvier. Found in spinal and cranial nerves.  Unmyelinated- fibre is enclosed by Schwann cells that do not form myelin sheath around the axon. Found in autonomous and somatic neural system. Generation and Conduction of Nerve Impulse  Ion channels are present in neural membrane which is selectively permeable to different ions. When neuron is not conducting impulse (resting), axonal membrane is more permeable to K+ ions and impermeable to Na+ ions.  Ionic gradient across the resting membrane is maintained by active transport of ions by sodium-potassium pump. This will develop positive charge outside the axonal membrane and negative charge on inner side.

Hypothalamus controls the urge for eating, drinking and body temperature. They also release hypothalamic hormones. Limbic system is involved in controlling sexual behavior and expression of emotional reactions. Midbrain is located between hypothalamus and pons of hindbrain. Dorsal portion consists of four round lobes called. They are involved in relay of impulses back and forth between cerebrum, cerebellum, pons and medulla. Hind brain consists of pons, medulla oblongata and cerebellum. Pons consists of fibre tracts that interconnect different regions of the brain. The medulla contains centres which control respiration, cardiovascular reflexes and gastric secretions. Cerebellum controls balance and posture. Reflex action is a spontaneous autonomic mechanical response to a stimulus without the will of the organism. It is controlled by spinal cord. The afferent neuron receives the signal from sensory organs and transmits the impulse to CNS. The efferent neuron carries the impulse from CNS to effector. Ex- knee-jerk reflex. The path followed by reflex action is called reflex arc. Human Eye – spherical structure consists of three layers, external layer is sclera whose anterior part is called cornea , middle layer choroid and innermost layer is called retina. Retina contains three layers of cells – inner ganglion cells, middle bipolar cells and outer photoreceptor cells. There are two types of photoreceptor cells called rods and cones. The daylight (photopic) vision and colour vision are functions of cones. The twilight (scotopic) vision is the function of the rods. Mechanism of Vision The light rays of visible wavelength fall on retina through cornea and lens to generate impulses in rods and cones. Photosensitive pigments opsin and retinal get dissociated due to light to change its shape. Change in shape of opsin cause change of permeability to generate action potential that is transmitted to brain via optic nerve.

Human Ears Divided into three regions: outer ear, middle ear and inner ear. The middle ear contains three ossicles called malleus, incus and stapes. The fluid filled inner ear is called the labyrinth, and the coiled portion of the labyrinth is called cochlea. The organ of corti contains hair cells that act as auditory receptors and is located on the basilar membrane. Mechanism of Hearing External ear receives the sound wave and directs them to ear drum. Vibration of ear drum leads to vibration of ear ossicles. The vibration reaches cochlea that generate wave in lymph. The waves generate ripples in basilar membrane and hair cells in them. As a result, nerve impulses are generated in afferent neuron that passes to brain via auditory nerves.

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