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1 Nicomachean Ethics
2 by Aristotle
3 350 BC
4 translated by W. D. Ross
5 (public domain text at: http://www.constitution.org/ari/ethic_00.htm)
6 Book 1, Chapter 1
7 EVERY art and every inquiry, and similarly every action and pursuit, is thought to aim at some 8 good; and for this reason the good has rightly been declared to be that at which all things aim. 9 But a certain difference is found among ends; some are activities, others are products apart from 10 the activities that produce them. Where there are ends apart from the actions, it is the nature of 11 the products to be better than the activities. Now, as there are many actions, arts, and sciences, 12 their ends also are many; the end of the medical art is health, that of shipbuilding a vessel, that of 13 strategy victory, that of economics wealth. But where such arts fall under a single capacity -- as 14 bridle-making and the other arts concerned with the equipment of horses fall under the art of 15 riding, and this and every military action under strategy, in the same way other arts fall under yet 16 others -- in all of these the ends of the master arts are to be preferred to all the subordinate ends; 17 for it is for the sake of the former that the latter are pursued. It makes no difference whether the 18 activities themselves are the ends of the actions, or something else apart from the activities, as in 19 the case of the sciences just mentioned.
21 Book 1, Chapter 2
22 If, then, there is some end of the things we do, which we desire for its own sake (everything else 23 being desired for the sake of this), and if we do not choose everything for the sake of something 24 else (for at that rate the process would go on to infinity, so that our desire would be empty and 25 vain), clearly this must be the good and the chief good. Will not the knowledge of it, then, have a 26 great influence on life? Shall we not, like archers who have a mark to aim at, be more likely to 27 hit upon what is right? If so, we must try, in outline at least, to determine what it is, and of which 28 of the sciences or capacities it is the object. It would seem to belong to the most authoritative art 29 and that which is most truly the master art. And politics appears to be of this nature; for it is this 30 that ordains which of the sciences should be studied in a state, and which each class of citizens 31 should learn and up to what point they should learn them; and we see even the most highly 32 esteemed of capacities to fall under this, e.g. strategy, economics, rhetoric; now, since politics 33 uses the rest of the sciences, and since, again, it legislates as to what we are to do and what we 34 are to abstain from, the end of this science must include those of the others, so that this end must 35 be the good for man. For even if the end is the same for a single man and for a state, that of the
1 state seems at all events something greater and more complete whether to attain or to preserve; 2 though it is worth while to attain the end merely for one man, it is finer and more godlike to 3 attain it for a nation or for city-states. These, then, are the ends at which our inquiry aims, since it 4 is political science, in one sense of that term.
6 Book 1, Chapter 3
7 Our discussion will be adequate if it has as much clearness as the subject-matter admits of, for 8 precision is not to be sought for alike in all discussions, any more than in all the products of the 9 crafts. Now fine and just actions, which political science investigates, admit of much variety and 10 fluctuation of opinion, so that they may be thought to exist only by convention, and not by 11 nature. And goods also give rise to a similar fluctuation because they bring harm to many people; 12 for before now men have been undone by reason of their wealth, and others by reason of their 13 courage. We must be content, then, in speaking of such subjects and with such premisses to 14 indicate the truth roughly and in outline, and in speaking about things which are only for the 15 most part true and with premisses of the same kind to reach conclusions that are no better. In the 16 same spirit, therefore, should each type of statement be received; for it is the mark of an educated 17 man to look for precision in each class of things just so far as the nature of the subject admits; it 18 is evidently equally foolish to accept probable reasoning from a mathematician and to demand 19 from a rhetorician scientific proofs.
20 Now each man judges well the things he knows, and of these he is a good judge. And so the man 21 who has been educated in a subject is a good judge of that subject, and the man who has received 22 an all-round education is a good judge in general. Hence a young man is not a proper hearer of 23 lectures on political science; for he is inexperienced in the actions that occur in life, but its 24 discussions start from these and are about these; and, further, since he tends to follow his 25 passions, his study will be vain and unprofitable, because the end aimed at is not knowledge but 26 action. And it makes no difference whether he is young in years or youthful in character; the 27 defect does not depend on time, but on his living, and pursuing each successive object, as 28 passion directs. For to such persons, as to the incontinent, knowledge brings no profit; but to 29 those who desire and act in accordance with a rational principle knowledge about such matters 30 will be of great benefit.
31 These remarks about the student, the sort of treatment to be expected, and the purpose of the 32 inquiry, may be taken as our preface.
34 Book 1, Chapter 4
35 Let us resume our inquiry and state, in view of the fact that all knowledge and every pursuit aims 36 at some good, what it is that we say political science aims at and what is the highest of all goods 37 achievable by action. Verbally there is very general agreement; for both the general run of men
1 according to them, at any rate, virtue is better. And perhaps one might even suppose this to be, 2 rather than honour, the end of the political life. But even this appears somewhat incomplete; for 3 possession of virtue seems actually compatible with being asleep, or with lifelong inactivity, and, 4 further, with the greatest sufferings and misfortunes; but a man who was living so no one would 5 call happy, unless he were maintaining a thesis at all costs. But enough of this; for the subject has 6 been sufficiently treated even in the current discussions. Third comes the contemplative life, 7 which we shall consider later.
8 The life of money-making is one undertaken under compulsion, and wealth is evidently not the 9 good we are seeking; for it is merely useful and for the sake of something else. And so one might 10 rather take the aforenamed objects to be ends; for they are loved for themselves. But it is evident 11 that not even these are ends; yet many arguments have been thrown away in support of them. Let 12 us leave this subject, then.
14 Book 1, Chapter 6 (omitted)
17 Book 1, Chapter 7
18 Let us again return to the good we are seeking, and ask what it can be. It seems different in 19 different actions and arts; it is different in medicine, in strategy, and in the other arts likewise. 20 What then is the good of each? Surely that for whose sake everything else is done. In medicine 21 this is health, in strategy victory, in architecture a house, in any other sphere something else, and 22 in every action and pursuit the end; for it is for the sake of this that all men do whatever else they 23 do. Therefore, if there is an end for all that we do, this will be the good achievable by action, and 24 if there are more than one, these will be the goods achievable by action.
25 So the argument has by a different course reached the same point; but we must try to state this 26 even more clearly. Since there are evidently more than one end, and we choose some of these 27 (e.g. wealth, flutes, and in general instruments) for the sake of something else, clearly not all 28 ends are final ends; but the chief good is evidently something final. Therefore, if there is only 29 one final end, this will be what we are seeking, and if there are more than one, the most final of 30 these will be what we are seeking. Now we call that which is in itself worthy of pursuit more 31 final than that which is worthy of pursuit for the sake of something else, and that which is never 32 desirable for the sake of something else more final than the things that are desirable both in 33 themselves and for the sake of that other thing, and therefore we call final without qualification 34 that which is always desirable in itself and never for the sake of something else.
35 Now such a thing happiness, above all else, is held to be; for this we choose always for self and 36 never for the sake of something else, but honour, pleasure, reason, and every virtue we choose 37 indeed for themselves (for if nothing resulted from them we should still choose each of them),
1 but we choose them also for the sake of happiness, judging that by means of them we shall be 2 happy. Happiness, on the other hand, no one chooses for the sake of these, nor, in general, for 3 anything other than itself.
4 From the point of view of self-sufficiency the same result seems to follow; for the final good is 5 thought to be self-sufficient. Now by self-sufficient we do not mean that which is sufficient for a 6 man by himself, for one who lives a solitary life, but also for parents, children, wife, and in 7 general for his friends and fellow citizens, since man is born for citizenship. But some limit must 8 be set to this; for if we extend our requirement to ancestors and descendants and friends' friends 9 we are in for an infinite series. Let us examine this question, however, on another occasion; the 10 self-sufficient we now define as that which when isolated makes life desirable and lacking in 11 nothing; and such we think happiness to be; and further we think it most desirable of all things, 12 without being counted as one good thing among others -- if it were so counted it would clearly be 13 made more desirable by the addition of even the least of goods; for that which is added becomes 14 an excess of goods, and of goods the greater is always more desirable. Happiness, then, is 15 something final and self-sufficient, and is the end of action.
16 Presumably, however, to say that happiness is the chief good seems a platitude, and a clearer 17 account of what it is still desired. This might perhaps be given, if we could first ascertain the 18 function of man. For just as for a flute-player, a sculptor, or an artist, and, in general, for all 19 things that have a function or activity, the good and the 'well' is thought to reside in the function, 20 so would it seem to be for man, if he has a function. Have the carpenter, then, and the tanner 21 certain functions or activities, and has man none? Is he born without a function? Or as eye, hand, 22 foot, and in general each of the parts evidently has a function, may one lay it down that man 23 similarly has a function apart from all these? What then can this be? Life seems to be common 24 even to plants, but we are seeking what is peculiar to man. Let us exclude, therefore, the life of 25 nutrition and growth. Next there would be a life of perception, but it also seems to be common 26 even to the horse, the ox, and every animal. There remains, then, an active life of the element 27 that has a rational principle; of this, one part has such a principle in the sense of being obedient 28 to one, the other in the sense of possessing one and exercising thought. And, as 'life of the 29 rational element' also has two meanings, we must state that life in the sense of activity is what we 30 mean; for this seems to be the more proper sense of the term. Now if the function of man is an 31 activity of soul which follows or implies a rational principle, and if we say 'so-and-so-and 'a 32 good so-and-so' have a function which is the same in kind, e.g. a lyre, and a good lyre-player, 33 and so without qualification in all cases, eminence in respect of goodness being idded to the 34 name of the function (for the function of a lyre-player is to play the lyre, and that of a good lyre- 35 player is to do so well): if this is the case, and we state the function of man to be a certain kind of 36 life, and this to be an activity or actions of the soul implying a rational principle, and the function 37 of a good man to be the good and noble performance of these, and if any action is well 38 performed when it is performed in accordance with the appropriate excellence: if this is the case, 39 human good turns out to be activity of soul in accordance with virtue, and if there are more than 40 one virtue, in accordance with the best and most complete.
41 But we must add 'in a complete life.' For one swallow does not make a summer, nor does one 42 day; and so too one day, or a short time, does not make a man blessed and happy.
1 Again, it is from the same causes and by the same means that every virtue is both produced and 2 destroyed, and similarly every art; for it is from playing the lyre that both good and bad lyre- 3 players are produced. And the corresponding statement is true of builders and of all the rest; men 4 will be good or bad builders as a result of building well or badly. For if this were not so, there 5 would have been no need of a teacher, but all men would have been born good or bad at their 6 craft. This, then, is the case with the virtues also; by doing the acts that we do in our transactions 7 with other men we become just or unjust, and by doing the acts that we do in the presence of 8 danger, and being habituated to feel fear or confidence, we become brave or cowardly. The same 9 is true of appetites and feelings of anger; some men become temperate and good-tempered, 10 others self-indulgent and irascible, by behaving in one way or the other in the appropriate 11 circumstances. Thus, in one word, states of character arise out of like activities. This is why the 12 activities we exhibit must be of a certain kind; it is because the states of character correspond to 13 the differences between these. It makes no small difference, then, whether we form habits of one 14 kind or of another from our very youth; it makes a very great difference, or rather all the 15 difference.
17 Book 2, Chapter 2
18 Since, then, the present inquiry does not aim at theoretical knowledge like the others (for we are 19 inquiring not in order to know what virtue is, but in order to become good, since otherwise our 20 inquiry would have been of no use), we must examine the nature of actions, namely how we 21 ought to do them; for these determine also the nature of the states of character that are produced, 22 as we have said. Now, that we must act according to the right rule is a common principle and 23 must be assumed -- it will be discussed later, i.e. both what the right rule is, and how it is related 24 to the other virtues. But this must be agreed upon beforehand, that the whole account of matters 25 of conduct must be given in outline and not precisely, as we said at the very beginning that the 26 accounts we demand must be in accordance with the subject-matter; matters concerned with 27 conduct and questions of what is good for us have no fixity, any more than matters of health. The 28 general account being of this nature, the account of particular cases is yet more lacking in 29 exactness; for they do not fall under any art or precept but the agents themselves must in each 30 case consider what is appropriate to the occasion, as happens also in the art of medicine or of 31 navigation.
32 But though our present account is of this nature we must give what help we can. First, then, let us 33 consider this, that it is the nature of such things to be destroyed by defect and excess, as we see 34 in the case of strength and of health (for to gain light on things imperceptible we must use the 35 evidence of sensible things); both excessive and defective exercise destroys the strength, and 36 similarly drink or food which is above or below a certain amount destroys the health, while that 37 which is proportionate both produces and increases and preserves it. So too is it, then, in the case 38 of temperance and courage and the other virtues. For the man who flies from and fears 39 everything and does not stand his ground against anything becomes a coward, and the man who 40 fears nothing at all but goes to meet every danger becomes rash; and similarly the man who 41 indulges in every pleasure and abstains from none becomes self-indulgent, while the man who
1 shuns every pleasure, as boors do, becomes in a way insensible; temperance and courage, then, 2 are destroyed by excess and defect, and preserved by the mean.
3 But not only are the sources and causes of their origination and growth the same as those of their 4 destruction, but also the sphere of their actualization will be the same; for this is also true of the 5 things which are more evident to sense, e.g. of strength; it is produced by taking much food and 6 undergoing much exertion, and it is the strong man that will be most able to do these things. So 7 too is it with the virtues; by abstaining from pleasures we become temperate, and it is when we 8 have become so that we are most able to abstain from them; and similarly too in the case of 9 courage; for by being habituated to despise things that are terrible and to stand our ground 10 against them we become brave, and it is when we have become so that we shall be most able to 11 stand our ground against them.
13 Book 2, Chapter 3
14 We must take as a sign of states of character the pleasure or pain that ensues on acts; for the man 15 who abstains from bodily pleasures and delights in this very fact is temperate, while the man 16 who is annoyed at it is self-indulgent, and he who stands his ground against things that are 17 terrible and delights in this or at least is not pained is brave, while the man who is pained is a 18 coward. For moral excellence is concerned with pleasures and pains; it is on account of the 19 pleasure that we do bad things, and on account of the pain that we abstain from noble ones. 20 Hence we ought to have been brought up in a particular way from our very youth, as Plato says, 21 so as both to delight in and to be pained by the things that we ought; for this is the right 22 education.
23 Again, if the virtues are concerned with actions and passions, and every passion and every action 24 is accompanied by pleasure and pain, for this reason also virtue will be concerned with pleasures 25 and pains. This is indicated also by the fact that punishment is inflicted by these means; for it is a 26 kind of cure, and it is the nature of cures to be effected by contraries.
27 Again, as we said but lately, every state of soul has a nature relative to and concerned with the 28 kind of things by which it tends to be made worse or better; but it is by reason of pleasures and 29 pains that men become bad, by pursuing and avoiding these -- either the pleasures and pains they 30 ought not or when they ought not or as they ought not, or by going wrong in one of the other 31 similar ways that may be distinguished. Hence men even define the virtues as certain states of 32 impassivity and rest; not well, however, because they speak absolutely, and do not say 'as one 33 ought' and 'as one ought not' and 'when one ought or ought not', and the other things that may be 34 added. We assume, then, that this kind of excellence tends to do what is best with regard to 35 pleasures and pains, and vice does the contrary.
36 The following facts also may show us that virtue and vice are concerned with these same things. 37 There being three objects of choice and three of avoidance, the noble, the advantageous, the 38 pleasant, and their contraries, the base, the injurious, the painful, about all of these the good man 39 tends to go right and the bad man to go wrong, and especially about pleasure; for this is common
1 that the just man is produced, and by doing temperate acts the temperate man; without doing 2 these no one would have even a prospect of becoming good.
3 But most people do not do these, but take refuge in theory and think they are being philosophers 4 and will become good in this way, behaving somewhat like patients who listen attentively to 5 their doctors, but do none of the things they are ordered to do. As the latter will not be made well 6 in body by such a course of treatment, the former will not be made well in soul by such a course 7 of philosophy.
9 Book 2, Chapter 5
10 Next we must consider what virtue is. Since things that are found in the soul are of three kinds -- 11 passions, faculties, states of character -- virtue must be one of these. By passions I mean appetite, 12 anger, fear, confidence, envy, joy, friendly feeling, hatred, longing, emulation, pity, and in 13 general the feelings that are accompanied by pleasure or pain; by faculties the things in virtue of 14 which we are said to be capable of feeling these, e.g. of becoming angry or being pained or 15 feeling pity; by states of character the things in virtue of which we stand well or badly with 16 reference to the passions, e.g. with reference to anger we stand badly if we feel it violently or too 17 weakly, and well if we feel it moderately; and similarly with reference to the other passions.
18 Now neither the virtues nor the vices are passions, because we are not called good or bad on the 19 ground of our passions, but are so called on the ground of our virtues and our vices, and because 20 we are neither praised nor blamed for our passions (for the man who feels fear or anger is not 21 praised, nor is the man who simply feels anger blamed, but the man who feels it in a certain 22 way), but for our virtues and our vices we are praised or blamed.
23 Again, we feel anger and fear without choice, but the virtues are modes of choice or involve 24 choice. Further, in respect of the passions we are said to be moved, but in respect of the virtues 25 and the vices we are said not to be moved but to be disposed in a particular way.
26 For these reasons also they are not faculties; for we are neither called good nor bad, nor praised 27 nor blamed, for the simple capacity of feeling the passions; again, we have the faculties by 28 nature, but we are not made good or bad by nature; we have spoken of this before. If, then, the 29 virtues are neither passions nor faculties, all that remains is that they should be states of 30 character.
31 Thus we have stated what virtue is in respect of its genus.
33 Book 2, Chapter 6
1 We must, however, not only describe virtue as a state of character, but also say what sort of state 2 it is. We may remark, then, that every virtue or excellence both brings into good condition the 3 thing of which it is the excellence and makes the work of that thing be done well; e.g. the 4 excellence of the eye makes both the eye and its work good; for it is by the excellence of the eye 5 that we see well. Similarly the excellence of the horse makes a horse both good in itself and good 6 at running and at carrying its rider and at awaiting the attack of the enemy. Therefore, if this is 7 true in every case, the virtue of man also will be the state of character which makes a man good 8 and which makes him do his own work well.
9 How this is to happen we have stated already, but it will be made plain also by the following 10 consideration of the specific nature of virtue. In everything that is continuous and divisible it is 11 possible to take more, less, or an equal amount, and that either in terms of the thing itself or 12 relatively to us; and the equal is an intermediate between excess and defect. By the intermediate 13 in the object I mean that which is equidistant from each of the extremes, which is one and the 14 same for all men; by the intermediate relatively to us that which is neither too much nor too little 15 -- and this is not one, nor the same for all. For instance, if ten is many and two is few, six is the 16 intermediate, taken in terms of the object; for it exceeds and is exceeded by an equal amount; this 17 is intermediate according to arithmetical proportion. But the intermediate relatively to us is not to 18 be taken so; if ten pounds are too much for a particular person to eat and two too little, it does not 19 follow that the trainer will order six pounds; for this also is perhaps too much for the person who 20 is to take it, or too little -- too little for Milo, too much for the beginner in athletic exercises. The 21 same is true of running and wrestling. Thus a master of any art avoids excess and defect, but 22 seeks the intermediate and chooses this -- the intermediate not in the object but relatively to us.
23 If it is thus, then, that every art does its work well -- by looking to the intermediate and judgling 24 its works by this standard (so that we often say of good works of art that it is not possible either 25 to take away or to add anything, implying that excess and defect destroy the goodness of works 26 of art, while the mean preserves it; and good artists, as we say, look to this in their work), and if, 27 further, virtue is more exact and better than any art, as nature also is, then virtue must have the 28 quality of aiming at the intermediate. I mean moral virtue; for it is this that is concerned with 29 passions and actions, and in these there is excess, defect, and the intermediate. For instance, both 30 fear and confidence and appetite and anger and pity and in general pleasure and pain may be felt 31 both too much and too little, and in both cases not well; but to feel them at the right times, with 32 reference to the right objects, towards the right people, with the right motive, and in the right 33 way, is what is both intermediate and best, and this is characteristic of virtue. Similarly with 34 regard to actions also there is excess, defect, and the intermediate. Now virtue is concerned with 35 passions and actions, in which excess is a form of failure, and so is defect, while the intermediate 36 is praised and is a form of success; and being praised and being successful are both 37 characteristics of virtue. Therefore virtue is a kind of mean, since, as we have seen, it aims at 38 what is intermediate.
39 Again, it is possible to fail in many ways (for evil belongs to the class of the unlimited, as the 40 Pythagoreans conjectured, and good to that of the limited), while to succeed is possible only in 41 one way (for which reason also one is easy and the other difficult -- to miss the mark easy, to hit 42 it difficult); for these reasons also, then, excess and defect are characteristic of vice, and the 43 mean of virtue;
