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experts. Accordingly, the summary of their observations and recommendations refers only to physical science: physics, chemistry and.
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REPORT OF A TECHNICAL COMMITTEE MEETING ORGANIZED BY THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY AND HELD IN ARGONNE, USA 1-5JUNE 1981
A TECHNICAL DOCUMENT ISSUED BY THE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, VIENNA, 1981
RESEARCH AND TEACHING NUCLEAR SCIENCES
AT UNIVERSITIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IAEA, VIENNA, 1981
Printed by the IAEA in Austria November 1981
Part l
Radiochemistry -Radiation Chemistry .................................. 25
Part 3C
The success of a nuclear programme in a developing country depends to a large extent on the ability of the local educational institutions to train scientists, engineers and technicians. The establishment of a workable training scheme in a given field is not an easy task. It depends on many factors: the needs of the country, the experience %nd inclination of the professional teaching staff, the availability of the experimental facilities or funds for their acquisition, the degree of industrial development.
The increasing interest of developing countries to form good local training opportunities is demonstrated in the large number of technical assistance project proposals received by the IAEA every year. The Agency's staff is requested to advise on such projects, and implement them if they are approved. In all stages of the projects' implementation, the Agency is seeking and receiving assistance from experienced scientists and academic teachers in the Member States.
Another step in this direction was made in 1981. From 1 to 5 June, a group of experts met in Argonne National Laboratory, following an invitation by the Government of the United States of America. Under the title of a Technical Committee on Research and Teaching Nuclear Sciences at Universities in Developing Countries, the group tried to formulate a set of ground rules to be applied when introducing or improving nuclear science training.
The Committee was composed of physicists, chemists and electronics experts. Accordingly, the summary of their observations and recommendations refers only to physical science: physics, chemistry and electronics, although many of the general statements can be applied to other branches of university-taught subjects.
It is realised that the present summary of the discussions of this meeting is not to be considered as a complete analysis and an ultimate recommendation on introducing and promoting nuclear science training. Nevertheless, it might be of interest and use for the staff of those universities in developing countries that are initiating the activities in nuclear science and technology.
Problems of development in a country cannot simply be solved by importing the necessary technology from advanced countries. A given technology is usually designed for a particular physical-social-economic environment and so it is necessary to modify technologies when they are transferred. This will be successful only if a number of good scientists are available and qualified to adapt to new technology. This is the reason why education should be extended on a large scale, from the secondary school to the university.
C. It might be advisable to relate the introduction of nuclear science to a university with a concrete project, particularly in countries where the specialized research laboratories do not exist. Use of nuclear techniques in geological mapping, studies of malnutrition effects, or determination of trace elements in plants are some examples. The parallel development of such a project and the training capability can be a good way to start.
methods, for example by using radioactive tracers, can add a new dimension or a better solution to a given problem.
E. There are a number of nuclear techniques which are unique or superior to classical methods. The high sensitivity of nuclear analytical methods, the application of radioactive isotopes or accelerators in industrial radiography, the speed and resolution of nuclear medical diagnostics cannot be neglected. At some time, every developing country reaches the level when the use of such techniques becomes an absolute necessity. Operation of the associated nuclear detection equipment, its maintenance, the evaluation and interpretation of measured data requires trained staff.
F. Most of the conventional scientific methods employ macroscopic techniques. Among one of the unique features of nuclear methods is their ability to investigate on a microscopic level. In many modern research and development projects, this use of nuclear methods is indispensible. For example: metabolic pathway studies or chemical reaction mechanisms.
F. For the measurement of radioactive fallout as a result of nuclear tests in other countries, and the inclusion of nuclear aspects in civil defense, qualified and trained staff is needed.
G. It is very important for every country to develop its own capability for assessment of new advanced technologies. The nuclear field combines many elements of contemporary technologies: electronics, high vacuum, low temperatures, on-line application of computers. Since nuclear resaerch is interdisciplinary by its nature, a research and teaching effort can serve as a focal point for developing up-to-date capabilities in such technological branches. A good nuclear science group at the university can frequently contribute to reliable evaluation of projects which include locally new technologies.
level. For such programmes, nuclear science provides suitable thesis problems.
I. For a country in which a nuclear power capability is planned, a strong training programme in nuclear engineering is essential. A training programme in radiation protection must be developed simultaneously. It is much easier to establish such a programme if the nuclear sciences are a part of the university curriculum, and
university, obviously depends on the country, its needs and development trends. In any case, a thorough analysis should precede any decision on the nuclear science programme at a university, and the size and financial commitments of such a programme should be carefully balanced to match the country's demands.
Some of the arguments above are elaborated upon in more detail in Part 3 of this report.
requiring specific skills which have to be learned, and which, to a large extent, depend on the social and political situation in a country. It would be a valuable asset if the scientists who has to also perform managerial duties would receive some special training in "organization and management of scientific projects".
In this context, it must be noted that the universities in some countries, adhere to a very rigid structure where a member of the faculty staff can communicate with the outside world through his superiors only. Such a system tends to destroy individual initiative and seldom leads to good results. A manager on all levels, inside the university should be given enough latitude to be able to interact with partners both inside and outside the university. As a rule, his role must be an active one.
Data handling:
The lack of suitable facilities and experience in data handling is another serious handicap in developing countries. As the university is obviously the place where the techniques of data acquisition and analysis must be taught, it is essential that the contemporary computer methods be introduced as early as is financially possible. The price of small computers (such as TRS 80, PET, APPLE) is within the reach of most teaching institutions. It seems that the introduction of the use of computer languages in the curriculum is of paramount importance; otherwise a new gap is being formed between the developing and advanced countries - one that is relatively easy to bridge at a reasonable price.
Supporting activity:
Experimental work (albeit related to teaching or to research) cannot be developed without suitable support. In developing countries it can frequently be observed that a scientific department orders and receives a sophisticated piece of instrumentation while the most simple tools are unavailable. The slightest malfunction of equipment can cause extended periods of inactivity before the fault is rectified, usually through intervention from outside. Well equipped and suitably staffed workshops, of a size corresponding to the volume of activities are essential. In support of nuclear resarch, an electronics workshop should have the staff, testing equipment and components to maintain and repair electronic instruments, and to perform small scale development of special items such as interfacing units. A mechanical workshop should be capable of producing parts as needed in experimental work, seldom available commercially. A glassblowing workshop is a valuable asset, particularly if radiochemistry is emphasized. Frequently, direct contact with a similar institution in an advanced country can be of great help.
Equipment :
It is always difficult to obtain funds for the acquisition of equipment needed in research, even more so in a developing country. Before a decision can be made on the type, size and brand of the equipment to be ordered, a careful study should be made. In cases where the local staff is not experienced, outside help should be sought from an unbiased party. Universities in advanced countries, and also international organizations (such as UNESCO and the IAEA) can provide assistance with advice.
The equipment problem is usually not solved when the ordered instrumentation is delivered and installed. All too frequently, the relatively small additional funds needed for the maintenance of instruments, for the acquisition of spare parts, or for sending the equipment for repair abroad, are not envisaged, and the breakdown of instruments has a strong, sometimes fatal effect on the implementation of the project. Another consideration is the relatively rapid obsolescence of modern research equipment. It should be realised that the continuous upgrading of instrumentation is necessary and will require appropriate funding.
When ordering the equipment, special attention should be given to assure that every instrument is delivered with complete technical documentation, service and operation manuals, electronic circuits diagrams, description of replacement parts, and if possible, a repair kit. These items should be a mandatory addition to every order. For sophisticated equipment, the installation, testing and instructing of local staff, by the company's field engineer, should be foreseen.
Improvisation:
The ability to improvise is a necessity in most developing countries and is frequently well developed in experimentalists.
Motivation:
This seems also to be a virtue, strongly present in scientists from developing countries. In cases where there is interaction between corresponding institutions in developing and advanced countries, it can frequently be observed that the enthusiasm of scientists from developing countries can produce a spark of new interest in their colleagues from industrialised societies.
Work in nuclear science can begin with just one highly motivated person. The first steps can be made without committees, agencys and large grants. It requires only hard work from one motivated individual to improvise on a new educational concept within an existing educational frame.
For the successful initiation of a nuclear physics programme, the
physics. The list of textbooks below, indicates the recommended level for entering nuclear physics studies:
a. General physics: Physics for Studients of Science and Engineering, by D. Halliday and Resnick (John
b. Calculus: Advanced Calculus, by I. Soholnikoff (McGraw Hill)
c. Elements of Programming: Course M251 (An Algolithmic Approach to Computing) Open University, UK
An undergraduate programme in nuclear physics should provide the
below. The following topics are common to both nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, although the depth and emphasis might be somewhat different:
the quantum theory of radiation
atomic spectra and atomic structure
isotopes
artificial radioactivity
interaction of radiation with matter, (alpha, beta, gamma, neutron and heavy particles)
radiation detectors
biological effects of radiation.
For students of nuclear physics, the list should also include:
fission and fusion
The organization of the above topics in the curriculum can follow different paths. A suitable approach might be to divide the undergraduate curriculum into three parts:
Kaplan (Addison-Wesley, 1963) supplemented with some theory, as for example discussed in the publication "Physics of the Nucleus", M.A.
b. Nuclear measuring methods presenting knowledge on detectors and associated electronics as found in the book "Radiation detection and measurement", by G.F. Knoll (John Wiley, 1979) and basic information on some atomic, nuclear and surface techniques.
4.3 Laboratory Work
Below is an extensive list of practical exercises that can be introduced in the undergraduate programme. It is realised that the actual selection of the laboratory experiments will depend on the availability of equipment.
lonization chamber, Geiger-Müller and proportional counters, scintillation detectors
Alpha, beta and gamma spectrometry
Compton scattering
dE/dx for alpha particles
Determination of the growth curve for induced radioactivity
Energy determination for cosmic muons
Identification and measurement of charged particles with track solid state detector
a. of high quality,
the country,
The graduate curriculum could cover the following subjects:
-nuclear reactions
techniques. This should not be taught permanently, but rather,
could cover the use of one or more techniques in biology or geology. For this course, it is important to carefully select the lecturers because this course will most probably be the one
profitable to have, whenever possible, these courses taught by
The research topics that can be introduced at the university as a
the existing equipment
The formulation of the most versatile techniques and equipment also
requires a high degree of ingenuity due to the fact that adequate results much be obtained with modest investments.
to be the most promising for a fast return. Their use in geological
offers possibilities, both for high quality multidisciplinary research, as well as immediate practical results.
With regard to research programmes, a differentiation must be made between research with "big machines" and other nuclear oriented research using smaller types of equipment. This distinction seems justified because goals, resources, administration are quite different.
The universities in developing countries seldom operate large research facilities. Research reactors and accelerators are costly in their installation, as well as in the maintenance. These installations are usually found in nuclear research centres; in such a case, a close
use the expensive research facilities, and the graduate students should find the opportunity to perform their thesis works using such facilities.
For convenience, the research programmes can be classified into fundamental and applied. A reasonable balance between the two should be maintained. It must be realised, however, that it is difficult to produce original and publishable results of fundamental studies (nuclear
field, the situation is more favourable: by introducing a new technique for the solution of a practical problem, valuable results can frequently be obtained without too much effort.
A condensed list of prominent topics which can be studied with research reactors and accelerators is presented below:
a. Radiation damage induced by neutrons, charged particles or gamma rays. The defects formed on an atomic or microscopic scale can be investigated and related to the macroscopic behaviour of different materials.
b. Neutron scattering (diffraction and inelastic scattering). The determination of magnetic and crystalline structure and the dynamics of solids and liquids offer many open problems.
c. Reactor physics. Determination of neutron fluxes, energy spectra, studies of delayed neutrons, reactor fuel economy, and optimization of reactor parameters are excellent topics for graduate work.
TABLE I : AREAS OF APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR DATA AND TECHNIQUES
Applied area Usage^ Main data requirements^ Level of knowledge of nuclear physics required by user
NJ
Electrical power Fission reactors Design Radioactive waste disposal Regulation Environmental Fuel element Control i.e. safe- guards. Radioisotope batteries Controlled thermal fusion neutron reactions
Biology and medicine
Neutron data, fission data decay data, nuclear structure
Agriculture
Diagnostic studies Therapy Research
Shielding and dosimetry
Food preservation
Decay data
Charged-particle reactions
Decay data/some reaction data
Decay data, neutron and charged-particle reactions/ protons, mesons, heavy ions
Absorption data for different types of radiation
Decay data
High
Low
High
Medium to low
Medium to low
Medium
Low
Applied area Main data requirements Level of knowledgeledge of nuclear physics re- quired by user
Geology Archaeology Forensic
Industrial
NJ
Physical sciences
Elemental analysis
Leak detection Gauges/thickness density Controls Fire detection devices Filters Materials treatment Solid-state devices Materials analysis Radiography
Nuclear physics Astrophysics Solid state Chemistry
Decay data, neutron capture X-ray fluorescence by means of charged particles
Various types noted above depending upon application
Low to medium
Low to medium
Low to high depending on specific area
