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NUTR 251 Exam 2 Study Guide: Lipids and Protein Metabolism, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Nutrition

Atlantic Institute of Oriental Medicine (ATOM)Nutrition

This nutr 251 exam 2 study guide covers lipid and protein metabolism, distinguishing between saturated/unsaturated, cis/trans fatty acids, and prostaglandins/essential fatty acids. It identifies food sources of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fats, addressing trans fatty acid functions, linolenic/linoleic acid structures, and fatty acid intake balance. The guide explores protein structure, amino acid roles, protein functions, and nitrogen balance. It covers metabolic pathways like glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and the electron transport chain, explaining carbohydrate, fat, and protein processing for energy. Key terms such as acetyl CoA, aerobic/anaerobic processes, and gluconeogenesis are defined for exam preparation.

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NUTR 251 Study Guide: EXAM #2
Lipids (Chapter 5)
1. Be able to distinguish differences and similarities between:
oUnsaturated fatty acids: have double bonds and saturated fatty acids only have single bonds.
osaturated vs. monounsaturated vs. polyunsaturated
1. Saturated: Beef, meat, dairy, coconut oil. Single bonded. Solid at room temperature.
2. Monounsaturated: Canola oil, milk, nuts, protein, avocado. One double bond and liquid
at room temperature
3. Polyunsaturated: have 2+ double bonds. More liquid at room temperature.
Sunflower/corn/soybean oils, animal fats
olinolenic vs. linoleic vs. DHA and EPA
1. Linolenic: omega 3, make the DHA and EPA, good for heart health, need more
2. Linoleic: omega 6, make arachidonic acid, Ex. Vegetable oil, we get a lot of this
ocis fatty acids vs. trans fatty acids: Cis is the hydrogens on the same side. Trans make them
opposite hydrogens, able to stack, making them linear, in a way making it more saturated,
more solid
ohydrogenation: “adding hydrogens” Stabilize polyunsaturated fats by adding hydrogen.
Making them into saturated fatty acids to have increased shelf life
oprostaglandins vs. essential fatty acids:
1. prostaglandins: 20 carbon long, made from polyunsaturated fats, part of immune
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NUTR 251 Study Guide: EXAM

Lipids (Chapter 5)

  1. Be able to distinguish differences and similarities between: o Unsaturated fatty acids: have double bonds and saturated fatty acids only have single bonds. o saturated vs. monounsaturated vs. polyunsaturated 1. Saturated: Beef, meat, dairy, coconut oil. Single bonded. Solid at room temperature. 2. Monounsaturated: Canola oil, milk, nuts, protein, avocado. One double bond and liquid at room temperature 3. Polyunsaturated: have 2+ double bonds. More liquid at room temperature. Sunflower/corn/soybean oils, animal fats o linolenic vs. linoleic vs. DHA and EPA 1. Linolenic: omega 3, make the DHA and EPA, good for heart health, need more 2. Linoleic: omega 6, make arachidonic acid, Ex. Vegetable oil, we get a lot of this o cis fatty acids vs. trans fatty acids: Cis is the hydrogens on the same side. Trans make them opposite hydrogens, able to stack, making them linear, in a way making it more saturated, more solid o hydrogenation: “adding hydrogens” Stabilize polyunsaturated fats by adding hydrogen. Making them into saturated fatty acids to have increased shelf life o prostaglandins vs. essential fatty acids: 1. prostaglandins: 20 carbon long, made from polyunsaturated fats, part of immune

response to inflammation, inhibits ibuprofen anti-inflammatory aspect

then splitting into EPA + DHA and Arachidonic acid

  1. Do trans fatty acids occur naturally in foods? No
  2. How do trans fatty acids function in the body? Increase LDL levels and aid in artery clogging
  3. Describe in words the structures of linolenic acid and linoleic acid. o Why are they called omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids? 1. Both are 18 carbons long, double bonds lay from the methyl end 2. 3rd carbon has a double bond in omega 3 3. 6th carbon has a double bond in omega 6 o What makes something an omega 3 or an omega 6? Where the carbon bond lies within the carbon chain.
  4. In terms of fatty acids, know which type we get enough/too much of, and which are insufficient. o We get a lot of omega 6 but not a lot of the omega 3 fatty acids. These two are essential.
  5. What are the roles of EPA and DHA? o decrease risk of heart disease, lower high blood pressure, reduce inflammation, and prevent blood clot formation (such as with a stroke or a heart attack). They are currently under investigation for their role in depression and arthritis. Improve eicosanoid status.
  6. What are EPA and DHA made from? They are products of Linolenic acid metabolism which are omega 3 fatty acids. Two long chain omega-3 fatty acids (20 and 22 carbons in length)
  7. What is the richest food source of EPA and DHA in the US diet? Fatty fish like salmon
  8. What is an eicosanoid and what is its structure? Made from arachidonic acid, regulate cell function more specifically regulated prostaglandins. Molecules that have hormone like activity. Controls inflammation immunity and CNS. Made from Omega 3 fatty acids.

disease. High in protein.

o LDLs: Made in small intestinal cells from the VLDL fragments. Increase risk for heart disease. LDL bring cholesterol to bodies tissues. High in cholesterol.

  1. Define atherosclerosis. Buildup of plaque in the artery walls.
  2. List the major leading risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Obesity. Smoking. Physical inactivity. High trans/saturated fatty acid diet, excess alcohol intake
  3. Discuss the recommendations for total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol. o Saturated fat: less then 10% of your calories o Trans fat: 0 o Cholesterol: less than 300 mg, prefer less then 200mg
  4. Explain the role of soluble fiber in helping decrease risk of heart disease. Soluble fiber takes the excess cholesterol in your body and excretes it. Absorbs water. Delays glucose absorption
  5. Know the cut-offs for total blood cholesterol only: Borderline Risk and High Risk.) Total cholesterol less than 200mg/dl  desirable, Borderline high  200-239 mg/dl and High  240+ mg/dl
  6. List and discuss dietary strategies to reduce cardiovascular disease risk. Replace saturated fats with polyunsaturated and monounsaturated and eat soluble fiber. LOSE WEIGHT
  7. How are triglycerides formed? With a glycerol backbone and 3 fatty acid tails

Proteins and Amino Acids (Chapter 6) and Fitness

  1. Provided the calories per gram for protein, and state the recommendations for protein intake (both RDA and AMDR). Someone could be in the AMDR but not in the RDA
  2. Describe the chemical structure of both amino acids and then of protein.
  1. Help maintain acid-based balance within the body fluids
  2. Serve as transporters
  3. Serve as antibodies to defend the body against disease
  4. What is deamination? What happens to the ammonia and urea as an end product of this process? Taking amino group off protein and using it for energy or breaking down excess protein and the byproducts are ammonia and keto acid. The ammonia and urea are excreted
  5. What is the implication for high protein consumption in kidney disease? Liver disease?
  6. Liver disease: high ammonia in blood
  7. Kidney disease: high urea in blood
  8. What is the difference between an essential and non-essential amino acid?
  9. Essential amino acids must be supplied by the foods we eat
  10. Non-essential/Dispensable amino acids the body can create given a source of nitrogen with fragments of CHO and fat.
  11. How many essential amino acids are there, and what are they?
  12. 9 essential amino acids: Help In Learning These Little Molecules Proves Truly Valuable
  13. (History Isolates Leonard The Lying Meth Physics Trying Valedictorian)
  14. Histidine
  15. Isoleucine
  16. Leucine
  17. Threonine
  1. Lysine
  2. Methionine
  3. Phenylalanine
  4. Tryptophan
  5. Valine
  6. Define a conditionally essential amino acid and give an example of this. It is non-essential but must come from diet. (Phenylalanine is essential) (Tyrosine is conditionally-essential when someone can’t make it from phenylalanine)
  7. If you were to eat one protein food for two weeks that had one of the non-essential amino acids missing, what would happen? (Assume all other nutrients are adequate.) If you were to eat one protein food for two weeks that had one of the essential amino acids missing, what would happen? (NOTE: This cannot ever happen with foods, only with purified diets formulated in a laboratory.) Protein synthesis would be limited.
  8. What determines the quality of a protein? Provide examples of high and low quality proteins. Amino acid content (having all 9 amino acids), digestibility (how easy it is to break down), ability to support growth
  9. How might you measure digestibility of a protein? Which has the highest digestibility, wheat protein or egg protein? Digestibility measures the amount of amino acids absorbed from a given protein intake. Animal products are the most digestible – 90 to 99% high digestibility. Plant foods are lower on the digestibility scale, diverse in content, missing some essential amino acids – 70 to 90% on average. Soy and legumes are higher in digestibility than plant foods. Egg white have a PDCAAS score of. Casein and egg white are the most digestible protein source. High digestibility is over 97% and low is between 65-80%.
  1. Positive nitrogen intake: pregnancy, bodybuilders, growing child
  2. Negative nitrogen balance: fasting, starving
  3. Remember that amino acids contain nitrogen so if protein is down, nitrogen is down and it would be a negative nitrogen balance and if you are building protein (bodybuilding) you are adding nitrogen so a positive nitrogen balance.
  4. What feature differentiates the amino acids? Each amino acid has a different side group.
  5. What is protein sparing? Making sure we consume enough carbohydrates so we do not have to use protein as an energy source and instead use it for things like muscle development
  6. How does fuel source vary based on time and intensity of activity? Exercise that lasts longer then 1 hour: you should eat carbs shortly after starting and continue eating at 15-20 minute intervals. For longer endurance activities you should eat 30-60g of carbs per hour. Eating carbs during activity will prevent you from running out of glycogen stores.
  7. Describe best fueling practices before, during, and after activity. Carbs are the best fuel for exercise, avoid fructose, endurance athletes might need carbs and proteins during exercise. Consume food ASAP after event. Consume both carbs and protein, muscles are most receptive of storing new glycogen 30- 45 min after exercising. Pounds / 2.2 = kg

Metabolism (Chapter 7)

  1. Define these terms, and know their role/function/mechanism in metabolism. o Acetyl CoA: 2 carbon molecule plus a CoA enzyme made form pyruvate if oxygen is present o Aerobic: process that requires oxygen

o Anaerobic: process that doesn’t require oxygen o Anabolism: combining molecules o Catabolism: breaking down molecules o Co-enzyme: help enzymes, not proteins o Co-factors: organic or inorganic substances that help enzyme function. They are minerals o Electron Transport Chain: use hydrogens from previous processed to create ATP o Fatty acid oxidation: prevented by hydration or saturated. Turns fatty acids into acetyl CoA o Glucogenic amino acids: converted to pyruvate then converted backwards into glucose o Gluconeogenesis: being converted back to glucose o Glycolysis: the process of breaking down glucose into pyruvate o Ketogenic amino acids: protein that converts to Acetyl CoA o Ketones: made form excess acetyl CoA, used for energy in emergency situations, very acidic and dangerous o Ketosis: condition that you can have, the ketones spill into your blood o Metabolism: breaking down food into energy o Oxaloacetate: needed to start the TCA cycle, made from pyruvate, o Pyruvate: two 3 carbon chains o TCA Cycle: need the acetyl co A and oxaloacetate and take the Hydrogen off of those and the ETC uses the Hydrogens to make ATP.

  1. What can be converted into pyruvate? Acetyl CoA? o Glucose (carbohydrate), Glycerol (can’t enter at acetyl CoA, that’s fatty acids) (fat), and Amino acids (protein) can enter at pyruvate and become pyruvate. o Pyruvate (glucose), Fatty acids (becomes acetyl CoA via fatty acid oxidation) (only enters at the acetyl CoA level, so it cannot make glucose), and Amino acids (proteins) can enter at the acetyl CoA level. o Amino acids can enter straight into the TCA cycle too. o Once something gets to the acetyl CoA level they will all have the same final product, they will all go to the TCA.
  2. When metabolizing margarine (fatty acids and glycerol), would it be converted to pyruvate before entering the TCA cycle? Yes
  3. What are the end products of metabolism? ATP, energy, water, CO
  4. List all possible fates of acetyl CoA. Can’t be turned into glucose. Go through TCA cycle. Used for synthesis of and make ATP. ATP and Ketone bodies.
  5. What does it mean if something is glucogenic? When is it important for glucogenic amino acids to be metabolized to glucose. Glucogenic means that the substance can be converted into glucose. A glucogenic amino acid can be converted to pyruvate before being converted to acetyl CoA then converted backwards to glucose.
  6. What is oxaloacetate (OAA)? Four carbon molecule that is needed to start the TCA. It is combine with the 2 carbon acetyl CoA. OAA is replenished/remade at the end of the TCA. OAA is the limiting substance in the TCA. OAA is made from pyruvate.
  7. Be familiar with the energy source for different physical states.

o When your weight is stable you are at an energy balance o When you are gaining weight, you are consuming more energy than your body needs, eating more calories than our body needs, results in excess. o When we eat our body uses protein for energy before it uses fat Phospholipid Structure: Sterol structure:

General Review:

  • The irreversible pathway is the pyruvate to acetyl CoA
  • Fatty acids are unable to yield glucose, only if they come in at acetyl CoA, because then they cannot go back up the chain.
  • Example RDA calculation: Someone weighs 67kg. Using the RDA regulation what is this person recommended protein needs? 67kg x 0.8g/kg = 53.6 g. This person consumes 1600 kcal/day, what is their AMDR in grams? 10-35% is the protein AMDR for protein. 10% = 160kcal and 35% = 560kcal. So

the