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OpenStax Psychology 2e - Full
American Psychological Association - ☑️ professional organization representing psychologists in the United States behaviorism - ☑️ focus on observing and controlling behavior biopsychology - ☑️ study of how biology influences behavior biopsychosocial model - ☑️ perspective that asserts that biology, psychology, and social factors interact to determine an individual's health clinical psychology - ☑️ area of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and other problematic patterns of behavior cognitive psychology - ☑️ study of cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship to experiences and actions counseling psychology - ☑️ area of psychology that focuses on improving emotional, social, vocational, and other aspects of the lives of psychologically healthy individuals developmental psychology - ☑️ scientific study of development across a lifespan dissertation - ☑️ long research paper about research that was conducted as a part of the candidate's doctoral training empirical method - ☑️ method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous authorities forensic psychology - ☑️ area of psychology that applies the science and practice of psychology to issues within and related to the justice system functionalism - ☑️ focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment humanism - ☑️ perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans
introspection - ☑️ process by which someone examines their own conscious experience in an attempt to break it into its component parts ology - ☑️ suffix that denotes "scientific study of" PhD - ☑️ (doctor of philosophy) doctoral degree conferred in many disciplinary perspectives housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences PsyD - ☑️ (doctor of psychology) doctoral degree that places less emphasis on research- oriented skills and focuses more on application of psychological principles in the clinical context personality psychology - ☑️ study of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique personality trait - ☑️ consistent pattern of thought and behavior postdoctoral training program - ☑️ allows young scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the field psyche - ☑️ Greek word for soul psychoanalytic theory - ☑️ focus on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior psychology - ☑️ scientific study of the mind and behavior sport and exercise psychology - ☑️ area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental and emotional factors and physical performance in sports, exercise, and other activities structuralism - ☑️ understanding the conscious experience through introspection Wilhelm Wundt - ☑️ established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany Plato - ☑️ Socrates' most well known pupil. Founded an academy in Athens. Descartes - ☑️ French philosopher, nativist, and dualist
cognitive perspective - ☑️ how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information The Interpretation of Dreams - ☑️ the Bible of Psychoanalysis by Freud sociocultural perspective - ☑️ perspective that focuses on the relationship between social behavior and culture critical thinking - ☑️ thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. Hypothesis - ☑️ A testable prediction, often implied by a theory Stanley Milgram - ☑️ obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions Albert Ellis - ☑️ rational emotive behavior therapy Critical Thinking - ☑️ the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment. Introspection - ☑️ examination of one's own thoughts and feelings Dissertation - ☑️ a formal and long paper, written for a degree at a university or college Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) - ☑️ created the forgetting curve and serial position effect in memory Solomon Asch - ☑️ Conducted famous conformity experiment that required subjects to match lines. Harry Harlow - ☑️ Studied attachment in monkeys with artificial mothers Prefrontal Lobotomy - ☑️ example of what happens when we rely on our subjective impressions; brain damage before and after the surgery remained the same Heuristics - ☑️ mental shortcuts or rules of thumb Healthy Skpeticism -
☑️ strive to think critically about information we encounter (regardless of the source) Facts - ☑️ observable realities Opinions - ☑️ personal judgements, conclusions, or attitudes Theory - ☑️ a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation of observed phenomena Hypothesis - ☑️ a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct Falsifiable - ☑️ capable of being false Case Study - ☑️ in depth study of rare cases (does not tell cause and effect); ex: Phineas Gage, H.M., Little Albert Anecdote - ☑️ a study of one person Naturalistic Observation - ☑️ watching behavior in real-world settings High Degree of External Validity - ☑️ extent to which we can generalize our findings to the real world Low Degree of Internal Validity - ☑️ extent to which we can draw cause-and-effect inferences Observer Bias - ☑️ the tendency of the observer to unconsciously skew observations to fit the research goal/expectations Operational Definition - ☑️ being specific about what is being observed; important to specify how we're measuring our variables ahead of time Self-Report Measures and Surveys - ☑️ surveys and questionnaires; advantages: -easy to administer -subtle information disadvantages: -may not have insight -may not be honest
Correlational Design - ☑️ research design that examines the extent to which two variables are associated; depicted in a scatter plot; correlations have predictive value; CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSATION Negative Correlation - ☑️ as the value of one variable changes, the other goes in the opposite direction (one goes up, other goes down) Positive Correlation - ☑️ as the value of one variable changes, the other goes in the same direction (both goes up) Confounding Variable - ☑️ third-variable problem Illusory Correlation - ☑️ when people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists Confirmation Bias - ☑️ looking for evidence to support a preexisting belief and ignoring evidence that contradicts it Experimental Group - ☑️ receives the manipulation Control Group - ☑️ does not receive the manipulation Independent Variable - ☑️ experimenter manipulates Dependent Variable - ☑️ experimenter measures to see whether manipulation had an effect Confounds - ☑️ any difference between the experimental and control groups, other than the independent variable; makes it impossible to interpret any findings Cause and Effect - ☑️ possible to infer, w/ random assignment and manipulation of independent variable Placebo Effect - ☑️ blind Experimenter Expectancy Effect - ☑️ double-blind Hawthorne Effect -
☑️ phenomenon in which participant's knowledge that they're being studied can affect their behavior Demand Characteristics - ☑️ cues that participants pick up from a study that allow them to generate guesses regarding the researcher's hypotheses To Minimize Hawthorne Effects - ☑️ 1. convert observation
- participant observation Institutional Review Board (IRB) - ☑️ -informed consent -justification of deception (Milgram's Obedience Study) -Debriefing of subjects afterwards Glial Cell - ☑️ cell in the nervous system that: plays a role in formation of myelin and blood brain barrier, responds to injury, removes debris, enhances learning and memory Neuronal Membrane - ☑️ covers entire cell and separates the inside from the outside environment Dendrite - ☑️ receiving end of the neuron Cell Body - ☑️ soma/central area; maintains cell's vital functions Axon - ☑️ extends from cell body, sends messages to other neurons (messages go one-way only) Axon Terminal - ☑️ end of axon; where neurotransmitter production and release happens Brain-communication - ☑️ electro-chemical Synaptic Vesicles - ☑️ small capsules that make neurotransmitter and release into the synaptic cleft Pre-synaptic Membrane - ☑️ semi-permeable covering on the end of the axon terminal Synaptic Cleft - ☑️ small space between axon and dendrite Post-synaptic Membrane - ☑️ semi-permeable covering on the end of the dendrite
Frontal Lobe - ☑️ motorfunction, language, memory, and executive function Motor Cortex - ☑️ voluntary movement Prefrontal Cortex - ☑️ thinking, planning, language, etc. Broca's Area - ☑️ language production Parietal Lobe - ☑️ somatosensory cortex: touch, pressure, pain information; spatial perception; object shape/orientation; integrates vision and touch input w/ motor output Temporal Lobe - ☑️ hearing, understanding language, autobiographical memories Wernicke's Area - ☑️ understanding speech Occipital Lobe - ☑️ visual cortex: vision The Limbic System - ☑️ emotional center Amygdala - ☑️ threat sensor (sometimes hippocampus) Midbrain - ☑️ contains limbic system Reticular Activating System (RAS) - ☑️ regulates cortical arousal Hindbrain (brainstem) - ☑️ between the spinal cord and midbrain Medulla - ☑️ regulation of critical functions (heart rate, breathing, etc.) Ventricles - ☑️ extend throughout the brain and spinal cord, carrying cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) which provides nutrition and cushion Alpha Wave - ☑️ a tiny wave at the start of the sleep cycle where humans are fully awake
Beta Wave - ☑️ a small wave that follows alpha waves in NREM-1 in which humans are still awake but getting more drowsy Biological Rhythm - ☑️ Internal rhythms of biological activity Circadian Rhythm - ☑️ Biological rhythm takes place over 24-hour period, sleep-wake cycle, linked to natural light-dark cycle (controlled by the hypothalamus-specifically regarding melatonin that the body makes in response to light and dark) Consciousness - ☑️ Awareness of internal and external stimuli Delta Wave - ☑️ Type of low frequency, high amplitude brain wave characteristic of stage 3 and stage 4 sleep Hallucination - ☑️ fantastic images Hypnagogic sensations - ☑️ vivid bodily sensations Hypothalamus - ☑️ helps maintain homeostasis (balance) within body; controls the circadian rhythm Jet Lag - ☑️ Collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our enviroment K-Complex - ☑️ Big spurts of brain waves associated with NREM-2 sleep Latent Content - ☑️ Hidden meaning of a dream Lucid Dream - ☑️ People become aware that they are dreaming and can control the dream's content Manifest Content - ☑️ The actual content of storyline of a dream Melatonin - ☑️ Hormone secreted by the endocrine gland that serves as an important regulator of the sleep-wake cycle Narcolepsy -
☑️ Second stage of sleep; the body goes into deeper relaxation; characterized by the appearance of sleep spindles and K complexes; can still be waken up relatively easy and lasts about 20 minutes; theta waves NREM-3 and NREM-4 - ☑️ Third and fourth stages of sleep; deep sleep characterized by very large delta waves; the fourth stage is the deepest stage of sleep and both stages together last approximately 30 minutes Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) - ☑️ Area of the hypothalamus in which the body's biological clock is located Theta Wave - ☑️ the type of wave found in NREM- Wakefulness - ☑️ Characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior benefits of sleep - ☑️ 1. protected our ancestors from predators, 2. restores and repairs the brain and body,
- strengthens memories, 4. facilitates creative problem solving, 5. growth hormones are active, 6. NREM and REM play important roles in learning and memory 90 minutes - ☑️ the amount of time that it takes for humans to cycle through the 4 distinct stages of sleep Organizing information into meaningful pattern is known as - ☑️ Perception what is the tympanic Membrane - ☑️ Ear Drum this theory states that hearing works on the belief that pitch depends on the rate of response in which neurons fire in synch with signals from sound waves. - ☑️ Frequency Theory This theory states that hearing works on the belief that different frequencies of air waves activate different locations on the basilar membrane - ☑️ Place theory You do Not constantly feel clothing on your body because of - ☑️ Sensory adaptation the perception of color is a function of - ☑️ Wavelength filling in gaps in what our senses tell us is called - ☑️ Closure the size of the just noticeable difference is a constant proportion of the initial stimulus is called -
☑️ Difference threshold Smell receptors send messages to the brain via the______nerve - ☑️ Olfactory The process where raw energy is converted into neural signals that are sent to the brain is called - ☑️ Transduction When we distinguish figures from the background, This is called - ☑️ Figure-Ground Principle Olfactory receptors are built so that only molecules with particular shapes will fit in particular receptors. this is described as - ☑️ Lock and Key which of the following is not part of the skins Four basic Types of sensation - ☑️ Kinesthetic When sensory information is detected by any type of sensory receptor. - ☑️ Sensation Weber's law - ☑️ Just noticeable difference. what we notice varies based on the amount of stimulus in our current environment. (Dark Movie, Out in the sun) Bottom Up processing - ☑️ Perceptions built from sensory inputs Top-Down Processing - ☑️ Perceptions built from knowledge, experiences, and thoughts Inattentional blindness - ☑️ Blindness of perception due to focus on other stimuli. Signal Detection Theory - ☑️ Identifying stimuli in a distraction background due to motivations ROYGBIV (long to short) - ☑️ red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet Frequency Is associated with which aspect of sound - ☑️ Pitch Timbre - ☑️ Quality of sound and a combination of Frequency, amplitude and timing Cornea - ☑️ Transparent covering of the eye Pupil -
Middle ear contains - ☑️ Ear drums and Ossicles (malleus, innis, and stapes) Inner ear - ☑️ Cochlea (basilar membrane) Frequency Theory - ☑️ Neural impulses are stimulated Place theory - ☑️ different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencie. different parts of basilar membrane - ☑️ the base of the basilar membrane responds best to high frequencies and the tip of the basilar membrane responds best to low frequencies Interaural - ☑️ A difference between the left or right ear is level of sound or timing conductive - ☑️ Failure of vibrations sensorineural hearing loss - ☑️ Problems with transmission from cochlea to brain associated with Skin Senses - ☑️ Touch, temperature, Pain acquisition - ☑️ period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response associative learning - ☑️ form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning) classical conditioning - ☑️ learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior cognitive map - ☑️ mental picture of the layout of the environment conditioned response (CR) - ☑️ response caused by the conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS) - ☑️ stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus continuous reinforcement - ☑️ rewarding a behavior every time it occurs extinction - ☑️ decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus fixed interval reinforcement schedule - ☑️ behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time fixed ratio reinforcement schedule - ☑️ set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded habituation - ☑️ when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change higher-order conditioning - ☑️ (also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus instinct - ☑️ unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; instincts are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans latent learning - ☑️ learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it law of effect - ☑️ behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged learning - ☑️ change in behavior or knowledge that is the result of experience model - ☑️ person who performs a behavior that serves as an example (in observational learning) negative punishment - ☑️ taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behavior negative reinforcement - ☑️ taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behavior neutral stimulus (NS) - ☑️ stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
variable interval reinforcement schedule - ☑️ behavior is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed variable ratio reinforcement schedule - ☑️ number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded vicarious punishment - ☑️ process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model's behavior vicarious reinforcement - ☑️ process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior Algorithm - ☑️ problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions analytical intelligence - ☑️ aligned with academic problem solving and computations anchoring bias - ☑️ faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution artificial concept - ☑️ concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics availability heuristic - ☑️ faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you cognition - ☑️ thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory Cognitive Psychology - ☑️ field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect of how people think cognitive script - ☑️ set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as an event schema concept - ☑️ category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences confirmation bias - ☑️ faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs convergent thinking - ☑️ providing correct or established answers to problems
creative intelligence - ☑️ ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a new, novel solution to a problem creativity - ☑️ ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities crystallized intelligence - ☑️ characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it cultural intelligence - ☑️ ability with which people can understand and relate to those in another culture divergent thinking - ☑️ ability to think "outside the box" to arrive at novel solutions to a problem Dysgraphia - ☑️ learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing legibly dyslexia - ☑️ common learning disability in which letters are not processed properly by the brain emotional intelligence - ☑️ ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others event schema - ☑️ set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script fluid intelligence - ☑️ ability to see complex relationships and solve problems Flynn effect - ☑️ observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation functional fixedness - ☑️ inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended grammar - ☑️ set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon Heuristic - ☑️ mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem hindsight bias - ☑️ belief that the event just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn't intelligence quotient -
