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ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
MEANING:
Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study of human behavior in organizational settings, the interface between human behavior and the organization, and the organization itself. Organizational behavior is the study of both group and individual performance and activity within an organization. This area of study examines human behavior in a work environment and determines its impact on job structure, performance, communication, motivation, leadership, etc.
DEFINITION:
“Organizational behavior is directly concerned with the understanding, prediction, and control of human behavior in organizations.”
— Fred Luthans.
FEATURES:
■ A Separate Field of Study and not a Discipline Only. ■ An Interdisciplinary Approach. ■ Applied Science. ■ A Normative Science. ■ A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach. ■ A Total System Approach.
OBJECTIVES:
- Job Satisfaction.
- Finding the Right People.
- Organizational Culture.
- Leadership and Conflict Resolution.
- Understanding the Employees Better.
- Understand how to Develop Good Leaders.
- Develop a Good Team.
- Higher Productivity.
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES:
- Improving Peoples’ Skills.
- Improving Quality and Productivity.
- Total Quality Management (TQM).
- Managing Workforce Diversity.
- Responding to Globalization.
- Empowering People.
- Coping with Temporariness.
- Stimulating Innovation and Change.
- Emergence of E-Organisation & E-Commerce.
- Improving Ethical Behavior.
- Improving Customer Service.
- Helping Employees Balance Work-Life Conflicts.
- Flattening World.
LIMITATIONS:
■ Behavioral Bias. ■ The Law of Diminishing Returns. ■ Unethical Manipulation of People.
CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES:
Psychology
Psychology deals with studying human behaviour that seeks to explain and sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals. Psychologists are primarily interested in predicting the behaviour of individuals to a great extent by observing the dynamics of personal factors. Those who have contributed and continued to add to the knowledge of OB are teaching theorists, personality theorists, counseling psychologists and primary, industrial and organizational psychologist.
Understanding Psychological principles and its models help significantly in gaining the knowledge of determinants of individual behavior such as
■ the learning process, ■ motivation techniques, ■ personality determinants and development, ■ perceptual process and its implications, ■ training process, ■ leadership effectiveness, ■ job satisfaction, ■ individual decision making, ■ performance appraisal, ■ attitude measurement, ■ employee selection, ■ job design and work stress.
Sociology
The major focus of sociologists is on studying the social systems in which individuals fill their roles. The focus is on group dynamics. They have made their greatest contribution to OB through their study of group behavior in organization, particularly formal and sophisticated organizations. Sociological concepts, theories, models, and techniques help significantly to understand better the group dynamics, organizational culture, formal organization theory and structure, corporate technology, bureaucracy, communications, power, conflict, and intergroup behavior.
Key concepts of Sociology are; Most sociologists today identify the discipline by using one of the three statements:
■ Sociology deals with human interaction arid this communication are the key influencing factor among people in social settings.
Political Sciences
Contributions of political scientist are significant to the understanding of behavior in organizations. Political scientists study the behavior of individuals and groups within a political environment. They contribute to understanding the dynamics of power centers, structuring of conflict and conflict resolutions tactics, allocation of power and how people manipulate power for individual self-interest. In a business field, organizations wanted to attain supremacy in their field and indulge in politicking activities to gain maximum advantages by following certain tasks like Machiavellianism, coalition formation, malpractices, etc. The knowledge of political science can be utilized in the study the behavior of employees, executives at micro as well as macro level.
Factors Influencing Individual Behavior
Abilities: Abilities of a person are the natural or learnt traits. Abilities can be classified into mental
and physical abilities and different task requires different level of the two. Mental abilities represent the intelligence, person’s deductive reasoning, and memory, analytical and verbal comprehension. Physical abilities include muscular strength, stamina, body coordination and motor skills. An individual’s self awareness of his own abilities determines how he feels about the task, while the manager’s perception of his abilities determines the kind of task he assigns to the individual.
Gender: Although, research concludes that men and women are equal in their mental abilities and
job performance, society does emphasize differences. However, absenteeism is one area where differences are found and can be attributed to being primary caregiver to children. However, this creates a difference in self perception of one’s abilities, personal values and social behavior. Similarly, a manager’s personal values might influence how he considers gender as factor in his task assignment and evaluation.
Race: Race and culture exert significant influence when both workplace and society have
considerable diversity. Stereotyping and attributing behavior based on race and culture are common mistakes that influence individual behavior. It is important for both management and the staff of diverse workforce to learn about different cultures, their values, common artifacts and communication protocols. This would create a more comfortable corporate culture and would subdue behaviors that might be perceived as insensitive and offensive.
Perception: Perception is the basic cognitive process that transforms sensory stimuli into
meaningful information. Most real life problems are multidimensional and the rational approach is often entwined with the gut feeling, resulting in individual perception. This quells the famous notion that reality is objective and thus everyone must perceive it the same way. Both managers and subordinates must recognize that perceptual differences exist and often are the reason for mutual dissatisfaction. Stereotyping: It is categorization of individuals on basis of single attribute, it ends up creating a generalized and simplified belief that do not take into account other significant characteristics. Age, race and sex are the three most common basis of stereotyping; not only they are unethical but can cost missing resources. In general, stereotyping leads to decisions that are based on inaccurate data that can result in unfair performance evaluations, job design or promotion. Selective Perception: It is the process of selecting only the information that supports our pre-existing belief system, thereby eliminating the discomforting information. Selective perception acts like a catalyst to stereotyping because people tend to notice things that fit their existing notion and not notice things that don’t. Both stereotyping and selective perception can be beneficial only by chance since they are based on partial information. The specific situations in which they can be positively exploited cannot be used as reliable methods.
Attribution: Attribution is the process of observing behavior and then determining its cause based
on individual’s personality or situation. Attribution based on personality is due to internal causes and
is termed as dispositional attribution. It includes personality traits like shyness, arrogance, intelligence, etc. Attribution based on external influences and situations that are outside the control of individual are termed as situational attribution. The basic attribution framework uses three criteria mentioned below. Consensus: It is the extent to which other people in the same situation might respond similarly. When behavior is attributed to consensus, the individual is not rewarded or penalized due his personality. Distinctiveness: It is the extent to which the individual’s behavior can be attributed to situations or to his personality. If the person behaves the same way in seemingly different situations, then his behavior will be attributed to his personality. Consistency: It is the measure of the frequency of the observed behavior, how often does the behavior occurs? High consistency is linked to dispositional attribution while low consistency is linked to situational attribution.
Attitude: An attitude is the abstract learnt response of an individual’s entire cognitive process over a
period of time. It is experienced as a quick response to a familiar situation without any deep reasoning; it forms the basis of biases and attribution errors. As an example, an individual who has worked in various organizations might develop an attitude of indifference towards organizational citizenship.
Personality: Personality is the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguishes one
individual from another. The `integrated individual behavior model’ proposed above, is a framework to understand the process by which the personality develops over a period of time.
Concept of Learning
Learning is a permanent change in behaviour due to experience or training. Learning has a major impact on individual behaviour as it influences abilities, role perceptions and
motivation.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
Classical conditioning: is based on the principle that a physical event referred as a stimulus that originally does not elicit a particular response and gradually acquires the capacity to elicit that response as a result of repeated pairing with a stimulus that elicits a reaction. This category of learning of is relatively common and has an important role in such reactions as strong fears, taste aversions, some aspects of sexual behaviour and even racial or ethnic prejudice. The first model, classical conditioning, was initially recognized by Pavlov in the salivation reflex of dogs. Salivation is an innate reflex, or unconditioned response, to the presentation of food, an unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could be conditioned to salivate merely to the sound of a buzzer (a conditioned stimulus), after it was sounded a number of times in conjunction with the presentation of food. Learning is said to occur because salivation has been conditioned to a new stimulus that did not elicit it initially. The pairing of food with the buzzer acts to reinforce the buzzer as the prominent stimulus.
operant conditioning: also known as instrumental conditioning denotes to the process that
people's behaviour produces certain consequences. If actions of people have pleasant effects, then they will be more likely to repeat them in the future. If, however, their actions have unpleasant effects, they are less likely to repeat them in the future. Therefore, this theory showed that behaviour is the function of its consequences. The well-known Skinner box verified operant conditioning by placing a rat in a box in which the pressing of a small bar produces food. Skinner displayed that the rat eventually learns to press the bar regularly in order to obtain food. Besides reinforcement, punishment produces avoidance behaviour, which appears to weaken learning but not curtail it. In both types of conditioning, stimulus generalization occurs that is the conditioned response may be elicited by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus but not used in the original training. Stimulus generalization has huge practical significance, because it allows for the application of learned behaviours across different contexts. Behaviour alteration is a type of treatment resulting from these stimulus/response models of learning. It operates under the assumption that if behaviour can be learned, it can also be unlearned Operant conditioning emphasizes voluntary behaviours.
new technique and promotes quick, thorough learning. It motivates effective workers to continue to do good work. Lack of reinforcement leads to job dissatisfaction. It increases productivity by rewarding workers who conserve time and materials. Employees who are rewarded after they successfully perform feel self-confident and become eager to learn new techniques, take advanced training, and accept more responsibility.
Rewarding employees who suggest improved work procedures will produce more innovation, it creates a relaxed work environment, reward new ideas and tolerate innovative failures.
2. In negative reinforcement , a disagreeable event that precedes a behaviour is removed
when the desired behaviour occurs. This process increases the likelihood that the desired behaviour will occur. Just as there are positive reinforcers, there are the stimuli that strengthen responses that permit an organism to avoid or escape from their presence. Some negative reinforcers such as intense heat, extreme cold, or electric shock, exert their effects the first time they are encountered, whereas others acquire their impact through repeated association.
3. Punishment: Punishment is an undesirable outcome a worker receives for bad behaviour.
This can involve actions such as demoting the employee or suspending the employee. A manager may put an employee on trial pending a change in behaviour. Additionally, the employee may lose overtime privileges or consideration for raises.
4. Extinction: Extinction is the elimination of a behaviour. This type of behaviour modification
should be reserved for the most damaging behaviours. When individual want an immediate and complete stop to unwanted actions, such as smoking on the job or using sexual innuendo, offer the most severe punishment, such as firing, if person see any more of the behaviour. Managers should make the consequences clear and make sure employees know there will be zero tolerance.
Schedules of reinforcement:
Reinforcement schedule is the timing of the behavioural consequences that follow a given behaviour. Fundamentally, there are two types of reinforcement schedules that include continuous and intermittent.
1. If a behaviour is reinforced each time it occurs, it is called continuous reinforcement.
Theoretical studies have demonstrated that continuous reinforcement is the best way to establish new behaviours or to eliminate undesired behaviours. However, this type of reinforcement is generally not practical in an organizational setting.
2. Intermittent reinforcement means that each instance of a desired behaviour is not
reinforced. There are at least four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio.
■ Fixed interval schedules of reinforcement take place when desired behaviours are reinforced
after set periods of time. In organization, a fixed interval schedule is a weekly paycheque. A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement does not appear to be a particularly strong way to elicit desired behaviour, and behaviour learned in this way may be subject to rapid extinction.
■ The fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement applies the reinforcer after a set number of
occurrences of the desired behaviours. An organizational example of this schedule is a sales commission based on number of units sold. Like the fixed interval schedule, the fixed ratio schedule may not produce consistent, long-lasting, behavioural change.
■ Variable interval reinforcement schedules are used when desired behaviours are reinforced
after varying periods of time. For example, there would be special recognition for successful performance and promotions to higher-level positions. This reinforcement schedule appears to elicit desired behavioural change that is resistant to extinction.
■ Lastly, the variable ratio reinforcement schedule applies the reinforcer after a number of
desired behaviours have occurred, with the number changing from situation to situation. In organization, variable ratio schedules are bonuses or special awards that are applied after varying numbers of desired behaviours occur. Variable ratio schedules appear to produce desired behavioural change that is reliable and very resistant to extinction.
Major function of the laws of reinforcement theory to organizational set up is behavioural modification, or behavioural contingency management. Characteristically, a behavioural modification program comprises of four steps:
- Specifying the desired behaviour as objectively as possible.
- Measuring the current incidence of desired behaviour.
- Providing behavioural consequences that reinforce desired behaviour.
- Determining the effectiveness of the program by systematically assessing behavioural change.
Organization's management style can integrate each style of reinforcement. However, contemporary organization theories generally advocate a focus on positive reinforcement, which encourages employee development and empowerment by nurturing pioneering and proactive behaviour. On the contrary, management styles that focus on negative reinforcement tend to be controlling because supervisors must confirm compliance before removing negative stimuli, which requires heavy control and observation.
Reinforcement theory is significant in changing the behaviour of employees in organizational environment as it explains how people learn behaviour. It is regularly applied to organizational settings in the situation of a behavioural modification program. The theory of reinforcement theory is disapproved for its principles that offer important insight into individual learning and motivation. It can be concluded that workers should be encouraged when they have a chance to perform a challenging task in the dissimilar situation in which performance depends on the skills and feedback is given regarding the performance. Reinforcement theory assists how individual or employee progress their learning skills and improve their self-confidence to attain their goals and contribute in the organization's growth.
EMOTIONS AND MOODS
Affect is a generic term
that covers a broad range
of feelings people
experience, including both
emotions and
moods. Emotions are
intense feelings directed
at someone or something.
Affect is a generic term
that covers a broad range
of feelings people
experience, including both
emotions and
moods. Emotions are
intense feelings directed
at someone or something.
Moods are less intense
feelings than
emotions and often
(though not always) arise
without a specific event
acting as a stimulus.
Emotions are reactions to
a person (seeing a friend
at work may make you feel
glad) or an event (dealing
with a rude client
may make you feel
frustrated). You show
your emotions when
you’re “happy about
something, angry at
someone, afraid of
something.” Moods, in
contrast, aren’t usually
directed at a person or
without a specific event
acting as a stimulus.
Emotions are reactions to
a person (seeing a friend
at work may make you feel
glad) or an event (dealing
with a rude client
may make you feel
frustrated). You show
your emotions when
you’re “happy about
something, angry at
someone, afraid of
something.” Moods, in
contrast, aren’t usually
directed at a person or
an event. But emotions
can turn into moods when
you lose focus on the
event or object that
started the feeling.
Affect is a generic term
that covers a broad range
of feelings people
experience, including both
emotions and
moods. Emotions are
intense feelings directed
at someone or something.
Moods are less intense
feelings than
emotions and often
(though not always) arise
without a specific event
acting as a stimulus.
started the feeling. Affect
is a generic term that
covers a broad range of
feelings people
experience, including both
emotions and
moods. Emotions are
intense feelings directed
at someone or something.
Moods are less intense
feelings than
emotions and often
(though not always) arise
without a specific event
acting as a stimulus.
Emotions are reactions to
a person (seeing a friend
at work may make you feel
glad) or an event (dealing
with a rude client
may make you feel
frustrated). You show
your emotions when
you’re “happy about
something, angry at
someone, afraid of
something.” Moods, in
contrast, aren’t usually
directed at a person or
an event. But emotions
can turn into moods when
you lose focus on the
event or object that
started the feeling.
with a rude client
may make you feel
frustrated). You show
your emotions when
you’re “happy about
something, angry at
someone, afraid of
something.” Moods, in
contrast, aren’t usually
directed at a person or
an event. But emotions
can turn into moods when
you lose focus on the
event or object that
started the feeling
