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Module 1 Organisational Behaviour Organizational behavior (OB) or organisational behaviour is "the study of human behavior in organizational settings, the interface between human behavior and the organization, and the organization itself." Organizational Behavior (OB) can be defined as the understanding, prediction and management of human behavior both individually or in a group that occur within an organization. OB is the study of human behaviour at work in organisations. Organizational behavior (OB) is the academic study of the ways people act within groups. Its principles are applied primarily in attempts to make businesses operate more effectively. Scope of OB O.B. is the study of human behaviour at work in organizations. Accordingly, the scope of O.B. includes the study of individuals, groups and organization/structure. Let us briefly reflect on what aspects each of these three cover.
- Individuals Organizations are the associations of individuals. Individuals differ in many respects. The study of individuals, therefore, includes aspects such as personality, perception, attitudes, values, job satisfaction, learning and motivation.
- Groups Groups include aspects such as group dynamics, group conflicts, communication, leadership, power and politics and the like.
- Organisation: It includes aspects such as formation of organisational structure, culture, change and development. Importance of OB
- It helps in explaining the interpersonal relationships employees share with each other as well as with their higher and lower subordinates.
- The prediction of individual behavior can be explained.
- It balances the cordial relationship in an enterprise by maintaining effective communication.
- It helps managers to encourage their sub-ordinates.
- It helps in predicting human behavior & their application to achieve organizational goals.
- It helps in making the organization more effective. Theoretical Framework of OB Cognitive Framework Cognitive approach emphasizes the positive and freewill aspects of human behavior and uses concepts such as expectancy, demand, and intention. Cognition can be simply defined as the act of knowing an item of information. In cognitive framework, cognitions precede behavior and constitute input into the person’s thinking, perception, problem solving, and information processing. According to Tolman, learning consists of the expectancy that a particular event will lead to a particular consequence. This cognitive concept of expectancy implies that organism is thinking about, or is conscious or aware of the goal and result of a behavior exhibited by it. It means that a person desires a goal and also knows the behavior that will lead to achievement of the goals. Behaviouristic Framework Pioneer behaviorists Ivan Pavlov and Jon B. Watson stressed the importance of studying observable behaviors instead of the elusive mind. They advocated that behavior could be best understood in terms of stimulus and response (S-R). They examined the impact of stimulus and felt that learning occurred when the S-R connection was made. Modern behaviorism, that marks its beginning with B.F. Skinner, advocates that behavior in response to a stimulus is contingent on environmental consequences. Social Cognitive Framework Social cognitive theory recognizes the importance of behaviourism’s contingent environmental consequences, but also includes cognitive processes of self-regulation. The social part acknowledges the social origins of much of human thought and action (what individual learns from society), whereas the cognitive portion recognizes the influential contribution of thought processes to human motivation, attitudes, and action. In social cognitive theoretical framework, organizational participants are at the same time both products and producers of their personality, respective environments, and behaviors. The participants as a group of produce the environment, every
These can also be explicit and implicit.Explicit attitudes are those that we are consciously aware of and that clearly influence our behaviors and beliefs. Implicit attitudes are unconscious, but still, have an effect on our beliefs and behaviors. Components of Attitude
- Affective Component: This component involves the person’s feeling or affect-positive, neutral or negative-about an object. This component can be explained by this statement.
- Behavioural Component: The behavioural component consists of the tendency of a person to behave in a particular manner towards an object.
- Cognitive Component: This component consists of beliefs, values, ideas and other information a person has about the object. It makes no difference whether or not this information is empirically correct or real. Importance of Attitude
- Attitudes help to develop the prevailing workplace environment that determines employee morale, productivity and team building abilities.
- It enhances the problem solving ability within an individual.
- Attitude helps to sustain in an organisation.
- It strengthens an individual’s decision making capacity in an organisation.
- It helps to cope up with the situation easily. Right Attitude Attitude is someone's opinion or feeling about something usually shown by the person's behavior. A right attitude will lead to increase in productivity and good working environment. Attitude involves feelings, values, beliefs and disposition that make individuals to act or behave in a certain way.
Advantages of positive attitude at the workplace
- It Creates a positive environment
- It helps to achieve goals and career success
- It helps in stress reduction and management
- It increases productivity levels.
- It improves teamwork
- It improves decision-making ability.
- It improves motivation for yourself and others
- It improves Interpersonal Relations
- It improves the attitude of other employees
- It increases self-esteem and confidence in yourself and others Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence (EI) is the capability of individuals to recognize their own, and other people's emotions, to recognise between different feelings and label them appropriately, to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior, and to manage and/or adjust emotions to adapt environments or achieve one's goal. Emotional intelligence also reflects abilities to join intelligence, empathy and emotions to enhance thought and understanding of interpersonal dynamics. It is the capacity of recognising our own feelings and those of others for motivating ourselves for managing emotions for ourselves as well as in our relationships. Developing emotional intelligence at workplace These strategies are based on Daniel Goleman’s five components of emotional intelligence in the workplace.
- Improve your self-awareness. Self-awareness is the ability to understand and interpret your own moods, emotions, and inner drives, and how these impact other people. People with a solid sense of self-awareness are generally self-confident and have a realistic assessment of themselves, their thoughts, and their behaviors.
- Improve your self-regulation. Self-regulation is the ability to control or redirect impulsive actions and emotions that negatively impact your potential for growth and leadership. This is the ability to “rise above” petty arguments, jealousies, and frustrations.
- Improve your motivation.
Sometimes people do not see a reason why they should change their attitude due to unavailability of adequate information. Balance and Consistency Another obstacle to a change of attitude is the attitude theory of balance and consistency i.e human beings prefer their attitudes about people and things to be in line with their behaviors towards each other and objects. Lack of Resources If plans become excessively ambitious, they can sometimes be obstructed by the lack of resources on the part of a company or organization. So, in this case, if the organization wants to change the attitude of the employees towards the new plan, sometimes it becomes impossible for the lack of resources to achieve this. Improper Reward System Sometimes, an improper reward system acts as a barrier to change attitude.If an organization places too much emphasis on short-term performance and results, managers may ignore longer-term issues as they set goals and formulate plans to achieve higher profits in the short term.If this reward system is introduced in the organization, then the employees are not motivated to change their attitude. Resistance to Change Another barrier is resistance to change. Basically, change is a continuous process within and outside the organization to achieve the set goal. When the authority changes a plan of the organization the employees have to change themselves. Ways to overcome
- Providing new information
- Use of fear
- Resolving differences
- Influence of friends and peer Chapter: Personality
PERSONALITY
Personality is a set of individual differences that are affected by the development of an individual: values, attitudes, personal memories, social relationships, habits, and skills. The word personality is derived from a Greek word “persona” which means “to speak through.” Personality is the combination of characteristics or qualities that forms a person’s unique identity. It signifies the role which a person plays in public. Every individual has a unique, personal and major determinant of his behavior that defines his/her personality. As Krech and Crutchfield say, "The study of personality is one of the psychology's most Intriguing puzzles and most difficult challenges". Eysenck (1953:2), defining personality, stresses upon the concept of organisation and also of adjustment of the individual to the environment. He defines personality”, “As more or less stable and enduring organisation or a person's character, temperament, intellect and psychique, which determine' his unique adjustment to the environment" Personality Trait Personality traits are the enduring features that define an individual’s behavior. A personality trait is a unique feature in an individual. Personality Attributes Locus of Control Locus of control is the center of control of an individual’s code of conduct. People can be grouped into two categories i.e., internals and externals respectively. People who consider themselves as the masters of their own fates are known as internals, while, those who affirm that their lives are controlled by outside forces known as externals. Before making any decision, internals actively search for information, they are achievement driven, and want to command their environment. Thus, internals do well on jobs that craves complex information processing, taking initiative and independent action. Externals, on the other hand, are more compliant, more willing to follow instructions, so, they do well in structured, routine jobs.
However, people with low self-monitoring skills cannot cover themselves. Regardless of any situation, they are always themselves. They have an attitude of, “what you see is what you get.” Risk taking Generally, managers are reluctant on taking risks. However, individual risk-taking inclination affects the bulk of information required by the managers and how long it takes them to make decisions. Big Five Personality Model This model consists of five personality traits those are as follows:
- Extroversion- It reflects a person’s comfort level with relationships. Extroverts are sociable, talkative, assertive and open to establishing new relationships. Introverts are less sociable, less talkative, less assertive and more reluctant.
- Agreeableness- It refers to the person’s ability to get along with others. Highly agreeable people value harmony. Low agreeable focus more on their own needs than the needs of the others.
- Conscientiousness- It refers to the number of goals that a person focuses on. Highly conscientiousness person focuses on relatively few goals at one time. A person with a low conscientiousness nature tends to focus on a higher number of goals at one time.
- Emotional stability- It focuses on an individual’s ability to cope with stress. The individual with positive emotional stability tends to be calm, enthusiastic and secure. A person with low emotional stability tends to be nervous, depressed and insecure.
- Openness to experience- Extremely open people fascinated by novelty and innovation. People with low levels of openness leads to be less receptive to new ideas and less willing to change their minds. Myers- Briggs Type Indicator
It was developed by mother and daughter team of Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs- Myers. It is a personality test developed that measures each of the traits of Jung’s Model. It measures how people prefer to focus:
- Attention (Extroversion vs Introversion)\
- Collect information ( Sensing vs Intuition)
- Process and evaluate information ( Thinking vs Feeling)
- Orient themselves to the outer world ( Judging vs Perceiving) Extraversion and Introversion The first pair of styles is concerned with the direction of your energy. If you prefer to direct your energy to deal with people, things, situations, or "the outer world", then your preference is for Extraversion. If you prefer to direct your energy to deal with ideas, information, explanations or beliefs, or "the inner world", then your preference is for Introversion. Sensing vs Intuition The second pair concerns the type of information/things that you process. If you prefer to deal with facts, what you know, to have clarity, or to describe what you see, then your preference is for Sensing. If you prefer to deal with ideas, look into the unknown, to generate new possibilities or to anticipate what isn't obvious, then your preference is for Intuition. Some people like collecting information. Sensing types use an organised structure to acquire factual. Intuitive people collect information non- systematically. Thinking vs Feeling The third pair reflects your style of decision-making. If you prefer to decide on the basis of objective logic, using an analytic and detached approach, then your preference is for Thinking. If you prefer to decide using values - i.e. on the basis of what or who you believe is important - then your preference is for Feeling. Thinking types rely on the rational cause – effect logic and scientific method to make decisions. Feeling types consider how their choices affect others. Judging vs Perceiving The final pair describes the type of lifestyle you adopt. If you prefer your life to be planned and well-structured then your preference is for Judging. This is not to be confused with 'Judgmental', which is quite different. If you prefer to go with the flow, to maintain flexibility and respond to things as they arise, then your preference is for perception.
The Rorchach test consists of ten inkblots, which were created by Herman Rorschach dribbling ink on paper and then folding over the paper to create a symmetrical design. During the test, participants are shown the inkblots and asked what each one looks like. The test administrator then asks questions about the responses, such as which part of the inkblot was linked to each response. This test can be used to examine a person’s personality charactersitics and emotional functioning, and is thought to measure unconscious attitudes and motivations. Thematic Apperception Test The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) consists of 30 cards (including one blank card) depicting ambiguous drawings. Test-takers are asked to tell a story about each picture, including the background that led up to the story and the thoughts and feelings of the characters. Like the Rorschach test, the results are thought to indicate a person’s personality characteristics and emotional functioning. Chapter: Perception Perception It is defined as the way of framing opinion regarding others. It is basically an opinion or view which an individual reflect towards others based upon its own intellect. Perception is an intellectual process of transforming sensory stimuli to meaningful information. It is the process of interpreting something that we see or hear in our mind and use it later to judge and give a verdict on a situation, person, group etc. Perceptual Process Perceptual process are the different stages of perception we go through. The different stages are:
- Receiving
- Selecting
- Organizing
- Interpreting Receiving
Receiving is the first and most important stage in the process of perception. It is the initial stage in which a person collects all information and receives the information through the sense organs. Selecting Selecting is the second stage in the process. Here a person doesn’t receive the data randomly but selectively. A person selects some information out of all in accordance with his interest or needs. The selection of data is dominated by various external and internal factors.
- External factors - The factors that influence the perception of an individual externally are intensity, size, contrast, movement, repetition, familiarity, and novelty.
- Internal factors - The factors that influence the perception of an individual internally are psychological requirements, learning, background, experience, self-acceptance, and interest. Organizing Keeping things in order or say in a synchronized way is organizing. In order to make sense of the data received, it is important to organize them. We can organize the data by:
- Grouping them on the basis of their similarity, proximity, closure, continuity.
- Establishing a figure ground is the basic process in perception. Here by figure we mean what is kept as main focus and by ground we mean background stimuli, which are not given attention.
- Perceptual constancy that is the tendency to stabilize perception so that contextual changes don’t affect them. Interpreting
influenced by personal characteristics of individual perceiver. The major characteristics of the perceiver influencing perception are: A. Attitudes: The perceiver's attitudes affect perception. For example, suppose Mr. X is interviewing candidates for a very important position in his organization –a position that requires negotiating contracts with suppliers, most of whom are male. Mr X may feel that women are not capable of holding their own in tough negotiations. This attitude will doubtless affect his perceptions of the female candidates he interviews. B. Moods: Moods can have a strong influence on the way we perceive someone. We think differently when we are happy than we do when we are depressed. In addition, we remember information that is consistent with our mood state better than information that is inconsistent with our mood state. When in a positive mood, we form more positive impression of others. When in a negative mood, we tend to evaluate others unfavourably. C. Motives: Unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals and may exert a strong influence on their perceptions. For example, in an organizational context, a boss who is insecure perceives a subordinate's efforts to do an outstanding job as a threat to his or her own position. Personal insecurity can be transferred into the perception that others are out to "get my job", regardless of the intention of the subordinates. D. Self-Concept: Another factor that can affect social perception is the perceivers' self-concept. An individual with a positive self-concept tends to notice positive attributes in another person. In contrast, a negative self-concept can lead a perceiver to pick out negative traits in another person. Greater understanding of self allows us to have more accurate perceptions of others. E. Interest: The focus of our attention appears to be influenced by our interests. Because our individual interests differ considerably, what one person notices in a situation can differ from what others perceive. For example, the supervisor who has just been reprimanded by his boss for coming late is more likely to notice his colleagues coming late tomorrow than he did last week. If you are preoccupied with a personal problem, you may find it hard to be attentive in class. F. Cognitive Structure: Cognitive structure, an individual's pattern of thinking, also affects perception. Some people have a tendency to perceive physical traits, such as height, weight, and appearance, more readily. Others tend to focus more on central traits, or personality dispositions. Cognitive complexity allows a person to perceive multiple characteristics of another person rather than attending to just a few traits.
G. Expectations: Finally, expectations can distort your perceptions in that you will see what you expect to see. The research findings of the study conducted by Sheldon S Zalkind and Timothy W Costello on some specific characteristics of the perceiver reveal.
- Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately.
- One's own characteristics affect the characteristics one is likely to see in others.
- People who accept themselves are more likely to be able to see favourable aspects of other people.
- Accuracy in perceiving others is not a single skill. These four characteristics greatly influence how a person perceives others in the environmental situation. Characteristics of the Target Characteristics in the target that is being observed can affect what is perceived. Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are more likely to be noticed in a group than ordinary liking individuals. Motion, sound, size and other attributes of a target shape the way we see it. Physical appearance plays a big role in our perception of others. The perceiver will notice the target's physical features like height, weight, estimated age, race and gender. Perceivers tend to notice physical appearance characteristics that contrast with the norm, that are intense, or that are new or unusual. Physical attractiveness often colour our entire impression of another person. Interviewers rate attractive candidates more favourably and attractive candidates are awarded higher starting salaries. Verbal communication from targets also affects our perception of them. We listen to the topics they speak about, their voice tone, and their accent and make judgements based on this input. Non-verbal communication conveys a great deal of information about the target. The perceiver deciphers eye contact, facial expressions, body movements, and posture all inan attempt to form an impression of the target. The perceiver, who observes the target's behaviour, infers the intentions of the target. For example, if our manager comes to our office door way, we think "oh no! he is going to give me more work to do". Or we may perceive that his intention is to congratulate us on a recent success. In any case, the perceiver's interpretation of the target's intentions affects the way the perceiver views the target. Targets are not looked at in isolation, the relationship of a target to its background influences perception because of our tendency to group close things and similar things together. Objects that are close to each other will tend to be perceived together rather than separately. As a result of physical or time proximity, we often put together objects orevents that are unrelated. For examples, employees in a particular department are seen as a group. If two
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy theory
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow. Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs, and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behaviour. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on. The need hierarchy is described as follows:
- Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sleep, etc..
- Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.
- Social needs - friendship, intimacy, trust and acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends, work).
- Self Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self- respect, and respect from others.
- Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Herzberg’s Two factor theory The two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene theory and dual-factor theory) states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction. It was developed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg, who theorized that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction act independently of each other. According, to Herzberg, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposite poles of one dimension, they are two separate dimensions. Satisfaction Dissatisfaction (affected by motivators) (affected by hygiene factors) Frederick Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory, also known as Motivation-Hygiene Theory or intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation, concludes that there are certain factors in the workplace that can cause job satisfaction and a separate set of factors that can cause dissatisfaction.
Comparison Maslow’s Theory Herzberg two factor
- It is based on the human needs 1. It is based on the use of motivators. and satisfaction.
- This theory is simple and 2. It is prescriptive in nature. descriptive in nature.
- In this theory any need can 3. In this theory only higher needs acts as motivator. act as motivator. Vroom’s Expectancy Model It is based on the idea that work effort is directed towards behaviour that people believe will lead to desired outcomes. Expectancy can be related as follows: Effort – to – performance Four important variables are as follows:
- First and second level outcome
- Expectancy
- Valence
- Instrumentality Vroom stated that an employee's performance is based on individual’s factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. This model is based on the belief that motivation is determined by the nature of the reward people expect to get as a result of their job performance. Porter’s and Lawler’s Model This theory was proposed by Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler. This was an extension of Vroom’s Expectancy Model. They stated that an individual’s motivation level is directly proportional to reward system. They identified various dimensions and prospects as well. The three extended dimensions are as follows:
