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PHC 6001 Final Exam,, Exams of Advanced Education

Walden UniversityAdvanced Education

PHC 6001 Final Exam,,,,,,,,,,,

Typology: Exams

2025/2026

Available from 03/25/2026

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PHC 6001 Final Exam
what is the goal of epidemiological studies? - Answer to determine an
association between an exposure and a health outcome
descriptive studies - Answer use existing data that is routinely collected (goal
is to look for disease trends in populations)
analytical studies - Answer hypothesis-driven (goal is to look for an
association between exposure/risk factor and a health outcome)
cohort studies and case-control studies are examples of __________ __________
studies - Answer observational analytical
in a _________ cohort study: exposure occurs โ†’ study begins โ†’ outcome is
measured - Answer prospective
in a _________ cohort study: exposure occurs โ†’ outcome occurs โ†’ study
begins (exposure and outcome are measured) - Answer retrospective
in a __________ cohort study: exposure occurs โ†’ outcome occurs โ†’ study
begins (exposure and outcome measured) โ†’ outcome continues to be
measured - Answer ambidirectional
case-control studies - Answer compare cases (people with health outcome)
and controls (people without health outcome) using interviews and
questionnaires to determine exposure history
cross-sectional studies - Answer observational study that looks at the risk
and outcome relationship at a point in time in a defined population
ecological studies - Answer observational study that looks at population level
risk factors and health outcomes to determine exposure/outcome
associations
what is ecological fallacy? - Answer when you make conclusions about
individuals but you based them on population data
__________ studies are best for gaining knowledge about preventing or
treating disease and are high validity studies due to randomization - Answer
experimental
__________ studies are good for studying all exposures, treatments, and
preventions and are less validity because the research has less control over
extraneous factors - Answer observational
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PHC 6001 Final Exam what is the goal of epidemiological studies? - Answer to determine an association between an exposure and a health outcome descriptive studies - Answer use existing data that is routinely collected (goal is to look for disease trends in populations) analytical studies - Answer hypothesis-driven (goal is to look for an association between exposure/risk factor and a health outcome) cohort studies and case-control studies are examples of __________ __________ studies - Answer observational analytical in a _________ cohort study: exposure occurs โ†’ study begins โ†’ outcome is measured - Answer prospective in a _________ cohort study: exposure occurs โ†’ outcome occurs โ†’ study begins (exposure and outcome are measured) - Answer retrospective in a __________ cohort study: exposure occurs โ†’ outcome occurs โ†’ study begins (exposure and outcome measured) โ†’ outcome continues to be measured - Answer ambidirectional case-control studies - Answer compare cases (people with health outcome) and controls (people without health outcome) using interviews and questionnaires to determine exposure history cross-sectional studies - Answer observational study that looks at the risk and outcome relationship at a point in time in a defined population ecological studies - Answer observational study that looks at population level risk factors and health outcomes to determine exposure/outcome associations what is ecological fallacy? - Answer when you make conclusions about individuals but you based them on population data __________ studies are best for gaining knowledge about preventing or treating disease and are high validity studies due to randomization - Answer experimental __________ studies are good for studying all exposures, treatments, and preventions and are less validity because the research has less control over extraneous factors - Answer observational

what is the only calculation possible for a case-control study? - Answer odds ratio: OR = (a/c) / (b/d) if the odds ratio is 1.2, this means there is a ______% increase in the odds of an outcome with a given exposure - Answer 20 what calculation is determined from a cohort study? - Answer relative risk: RR = [a / (a+b)] / [c / (c+d)] what are the ways in which you can categorize experimental studies? - Answer - parallel vs crossover

  • simple vs factorial parallel trials - Answer each exposure group receives a single exposure at the same time crossover trials - Answer gives treatments to both exposure groups in different orders simple design - Answer each group gets one treatment (new or old) factorial design - Answer there are multiple treatments given to different groups what is the goal of randomization? - Answer to achieve baseline comparability between compared groups on factors related to outcome blocking - Answer randomization in small groups stratification - Answer separating participants by characteristics that you want to be similar in both groups (ex. age, gender) what is a cohort study? - Answer longitudinal observational study in which groups of participants are identified based on their exposure to a particular risk factor and then compared to a group that have not been exposed to that same factor dynamic and fixed cohort studies usually use __________ to measure disease frequency whereas closed population fixed cohort studies use __________ to measure disease frequency - Answer incidence rate; cumulative incidence cohort studies are not efficient for - Answer rare exposures when would you choose a case-control study? - Answer - dont have exposure data
  • disease of interest is rare

recall bias, interviewer bias, and differential and non-differential misclassification are all types of __________ bias - Answer observation recall bias - Answer people with disease remember or report exposures differently (more or less accurately) than those without disease interviewer bias - Answer systematic difference in soliciting, recording, interpreting information gained from interviews non-differential misclassification - Answer inaccuracies with respect to disease classification are independent of exposures differential misclassification - Answer inaccuracies with respect to disease classification are exposure dependent confounding - Answer occurs when two variables are associated in such a way that their effects on a response variable cannot be distinguished from each other what are three ways to control for confounding in the design phase of a study? - Answer randomization, restriction, and matching what are three ways to control for confounding in the analysis phase of a study? - Answer standardization, stratification, and multivariate methods residual confounding - Answer confounding that remains even after many confounding variables have been controlled what are hill's guidelines for assessing causation? - Answer - strength of association

  • consistency
  • specificity
  • temporality
  • biological gradient
  • plausibility
  • coherence
  • experiment
  • analogy strength of association: the _________ the association, the more likely the exposure is causing the health outcome - Answer larger

consistency - Answer association is observed repeatedly in different persons, places, times, and circumstances specificity - Answer a single exposure should cause a single health outcome temporality - Answer the causal factor must precede the health outcome in time biological gradient - Answer persons who have increasingly higher exposure levels have increasingly higher risks of health outcome plausibility - Answer biological or social model exists to explain the association coherence - Answer association does not conflict with current knowledge of natural history and biology of disease analogy - Answer has a similar relationship been observed with another exposure and/or health outcome? what is the only one of hill's criteria that everyone agrees with? - Answer temporality effect measure modification - Answer phenomenon that occurs when the association between an exposure and an outcome is modified by a third variable, called an effect modifier what is the main difference between EMM and confounding? - Answer in EMM we aim to explain an occurrence and in confounding we aim to eliminate a problem departure from multiplicity - Answer occurs when the relative risk associated with having both factors together than the product of the relative risk associated with each factor alone nuremberg code - Answer ethical code of conduct for research that uses human subjects tuskegee syphilis study - Answer research study conducted by a branch of the us government, lasting for roughly 50 years (ending in the 1970s), in which a sample of african american men diagnosed with syphilis were deliberately left untreated, without their knowledge, to learn about the lifetime course of the disease declaration of helsinki - Answer ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects