Phonological process
Description
Example
Approximate
age of
elimination
Cluster reduction
When a consonant cluster is
produced with only one
consonant
“truck” à “tuck”
“slide” à “side”
“brown” à “bown”
~4 years;
Including /s/,
gone by 5 years
Final consonant deletion
When the last consonant of a
word is omitted
“dog” à “daw”
~3 years
Initial consonant deletion
When the first consonant of a
word is omitted
“dog” à “awg”
Never typical;
seen in more
severe
phonological
disorders
Weak syllable deletion
When the first unstressed
syllable of a word is omitted
“banana” à “nana”
~4 years
Epenthesis
When a sound is added
between two consonants,
often “uh”
“plane” à “puh-lane”
~8 years
Backing
When alveolar sounds /t/ or /d/
are substituted with /k/ or /g/
“bus” à “buhk”
“lid” à “lig”
Never typical;
seen in more
severe
phonological
disorders
Fronting
When velar sounds /k/ or /g/ are
substitued with alveolar
sounds /t/ or /d/
“bag” à “bad”
“lake” à “late”
~3.5 years
Affrication
When a non-affricate is
substitued with an affricate,
“ch” or “j”
“doggie” à “joggie”
~3 years
Deaffrication
When an affricate “ch” or “j” is
substituted with a fricative or
stop, like “sh” or /d/
“choo-choo” à “shoo shoo”
“chip” à “dip”
~4 years
Alveolarization
When an non-alveolar sound is
substitued with an alveolar
sound
“shoe” à “tu”
“make” à “nake”
~5 years
Depalatalization
When a palatal sound is
substituted with a non-palatal
sound
“dish” à “dit”
~5 years
Labialization
When a non-labial sound is
substituted with a labial sound,
/m/, /p/, or /b/.
“toad” à “poad”
“nail” à “mail”
~6 years
Gliding
When /l/ or /r/ becomes a /w/ or
/y/ sound
“yellow” à “yewo”or “yeyo”
“rock” à “wock”
~6 years
Stopping
When a fricative or affricate is
“foot” à “put”
/f, v, s, z/ by 3
