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1 Interference and Coherent Sources
monochromatic light: light of a single color (wavelength). interference: any situation in which two or more waves overlap in space.
Principle of superposition
When two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any point and at any instant may be found by adding the instantaneous displacements that would be produced at that point by the individual waves if each were present alone.
in-phase: when two periodic motions are in step–their maximums and minimums coincide.
Constructive interference
Constructive interference of two waves arriving at a point occurs when the path difference from the two sources is an integer number of wavelengths:
r 2 − r 1 = mλ (m = 0, ± 1 , ± 2 , ± 3 , ...).
Destructive interference
Destructive interference of two waves arriving at a point occurs when the path difference from the two sources is a half-integer number of wavelengths:
r 2 − r 1 =
m +
λ (m = 0, ± 1 , ± 2 , ± 3 , ...).
coherent: light from secondary sources derived from a primary source with a definite, constant phase relation.
2 Two-Source Interference of Light
Constructive and destructive interference, two slits
Constructive interference occurs at angles θ for which
d sin θ = mλ (m = 0, ± 1 , ± 2 , ...).
Similarly, destructive interference (cancellation) occurs, forming dark regions on the screen, at points for which the path difference is half-integral number of wavelengths, (m + 12 )λ:
d sin θ =
m +
λ (m = 0, ± 1 , ± 2 , ...).
Constructive interference, Young’s experiment
ym = R mλ d
(m = 0, ± 1 , ± 2 , ...).
Destructive interference, Young’s experiment
ym = R
m + (^12)
λ d
(m = 0, ± 1 , ± 2 , ...).
The distance between adjacent bright bands in the pattern is inversely proportional to the distance d between the slits. The closer together the slits are, the more the pattern spreads out. When the slits are far apart, the bands in the pattern are closer together.
3 Interference in Thin Films
When a wave traveling in a medium a is reflected at an interface between this material and a different material b, there may or may not be an additional phase shift associated with the reflection, depending on the refractive indexes na and nb of the two materials.
- if the second material b has a greater refractive index than the first na (nb > na) the reflected wave undergoes a half-cycle phase shift during reflection
- if the second material b has a smaller refractive index than the first na (nb < na) there is no phase shift.
Constructive interference, thin films
2 t = mλ (m = 0, ± 1 , ± 2 , ... and t is film thickness)
Destructive interference, thin films
2 t =
m +
λ (m = 0, ± 1 , ± 2 , ...)
Newton’s rings: circular interference fringes formed when monochromatic light is incident on a thin film of air between a convex surface of a lens and a plane glass plate.
7 X-Ray Diffraction
x-ray diffraction: diffraction pattern formed from x-rays scattered (absorbed and re-emitted) by individual atoms in a crystal. Bragg reflection: constructive interference from a whole crystal lattice from many different d’s and many sets of angles. Bragg condition: 2d sin θ = mλ where (m = 1, 2 , 3)
8 Circular Apertures and Resolving Power
First dark ring from a circular aperture
Where aperture diameter is D, sin θ 1 = 1. 22
λ D
Airy disk : the central bright spot formed from a diffraction pattern of an aperture.
Rayleigh’s criterion
The minimum angular separation of two objects that can barely be resolved by an optical instrument is called the limit of resolution, θres of the instrument:
θres = 1. 22
λ D
resolving power or resolution: sharpness of an image.
9 Holography
holography : a technique for recording and reproducing an image of an object without the use of lenses. hologram: a photographic record of an interference pattern formed by light scattered from an object and light coming directly from the source.
