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Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers. Some popular Operating Systems include Linux, Windows, OS X, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.
Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. Following are some of important functions of an operating System. Memory Management Processor Management Device Management File Management Security Control over system performance Job accounting Error detecting aids
Coordination between other software and users
Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or byte has its own address. Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System does the following activities for memory management − Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part are not in use. In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and how much. Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so. De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been terminated.
Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the processor when and for how much time. This function is called process scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities for processor management − Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this task is known as traffic controller. Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process. De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective drivers. It does the following activities for device management − Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time. Allocates the device in the efficient way. De-allocates devices.
File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may contain files and other directions.
Difficult to provide the desired priority.
Time-sharing operating systems
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing. The main difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time. Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most. The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems. Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows − Provides the advantage of quick response. Avoids duplication of software. Reduces CPU idle time. Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows − Problem of reliability. Question of security and integrity of user programs and data. Problem of data communication.
Distributed operating System
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly. The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows − With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at another. Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail. If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating. Better service to the customers. Reduction of the load on the host computer. Reduction of delays in data processing.
Network operating System
A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks. Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD. The advantages of network operating systems are as follows − Centralized servers are highly stable. Security is server managed. Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system. Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems. The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows − High cost of buying and running a server. Dependency on a central location for most operations. Regular maintenance and updates are required.
Real Time operating System
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as the response time. So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online processing. Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated
Loads a program into memory. Executes the program. Handles program's execution. Provides a mechanism for process synchronization. Provides a mechanism for process communication. Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.
I/O Operation
An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver software. Drivers hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users. An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers. I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device. Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.
File system manipulation
A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk (secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage media include magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate and data access methods. A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may contain files and other directions. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to file management − Program needs to read a file or write a file. The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file. Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on. Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files. Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories. Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.
Communication
In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications between all the processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through communication lines in the network. The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to communication −
Two processes often require data to be transferred between them Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are connected through a computer network. Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or by Message Passing.
Error handling
Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to error handling − The OS constantly checks for possible errors. The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.
Resource Management
In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU cycles and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to resource management − The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers. CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.
Protection
Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of multiple processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's activities. Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to protection − The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled. The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts. The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords.
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching between them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program while it is running. An OS does the following activities related to multitasking − The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives an immediate response. The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes multiple programs at a time. Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems. These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer system at a reasonable cost. A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU. Each user has at least one separate program in memory. A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a process. When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it either finishes or needs to perform I/O. Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to complete. During this time, a CPU can be utilized by another process. The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since each action or command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is needed for each user. As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given the impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared among many users.
Multiprogramming
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is referred as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute. The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system. An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming. The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time. This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool. The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory. Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and system resources using memory management programs to ensures that the CPU is never idle, unless there are no jobs to process.
Advantages
High and efficient CPU utilization. User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.
Disadvantages
Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest while the slower device catches up. Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can perform I/O in parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data from a tape, write data to disk and to write out to a tape printer while it is doing its computing task.
Advantages
The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer. Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor operations for another job.
Operating System - Processes
Process
A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a process must progress in a sequential fashion. A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit of work to be implemented in the system. To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when we execute this program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks mentioned in the program. When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a process, it can be divided into four sections ─ stack, heap, text and data. The following image shows a simplified layout of a process inside main memory − S.N. Component & Description 1 Stack The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function parameters, return address and local variables. 2 Heap
to assign CPU to some other process. 3 Running Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the process state is set to running and the processor executes its instructions. 4 Waiting Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as waiting for user input, or waiting for a file to become available. 5 Terminated or Exit Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating system, it is moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from main memory.
Process Control Block (PCB)
A Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the Operating System for every process. The PCB is identified by an integer process ID (PID). A PCB keeps all the information needed to keep track of a process as listed below in the table − S.N. Information & Description 1 Process State The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running, waiting, or whatever. 2 Process privileges This is required to allow/disallow access to system resources. 3 Process ID Unique identification for each of the process in the operating system. 4 Pointer A pointer to parent process.
Program Counter Program Counter is a pointer to the address of the next instruction to be executed for this process. 6 CPU registers Various CPU registers where process need to be stored for execution for running state. 7 CPU Scheduling Information Process priority and other scheduling information which is required to schedule the process. 8 Memory management information This includes the information of page table, memory limits, Segment table depending on memory used by the operating system. 9 Accounting information This includes the amount of CPU used for process execution, time limits, execution ID etc. 10 IO status information This includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process. The architecture of a PCB is completely dependent on Operating System and may contain different information in different operating systems. Here is a simplified diagram of a PCB −
the same queue. When the state of a process is changed, its PCB is unlinked from its current queue and moved to its new state queue. The Operating System maintains the following important process scheduling queues − Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the system. Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute. A new process is always put in this queue. Device queues − The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O device constitute this queue. The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin, Priority, etc.). The OS scheduler determines how to move processes between the ready and run queues which can only have one entry per processor core on the system; in the above diagram, it has been merged with the CPU.
Two-State Process Model
Two-state process model refers to running and non-running states which are described below − S.N. State & Description 1 Running When a new process is created, it enters into the system as in the running state. 2 Not Running Processes that are not running are kept in queue, waiting for their turn to execute. Each entry in the queue is a pointer to a particular process. Queue is implemented by using linked list. Use of dispatcher is as follows. When a process is interrupted, that process is transferred in the waiting queue. If the process has completed or aborted, the process is
discarded. In either case, the dispatcher then selects a process from the queue to execute.
Schedulers
Schedulers are special system software which handle process scheduling in various ways. Their main task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the system and to decide which process to run. Schedulers are of three types − Long-Term Scheduler Short-Term Scheduler Medium-Term Scheduler
Long Term Scheduler
It is also called a job scheduler. A long-term scheduler determines which programs are admitted to the system for processing. It selects processes from the queue and loads them into memory for execution. Process loads into the memory for CPU scheduling. The primary objective of the job scheduler is to provide a balanced mix of jobs, such as I/O bound and processor bound. It also controls the degree of multiprogramming. If the degree of multiprogramming is stable, then the average rate of process creation must be equal to the average departure rate of processes leaving the system. On some systems, the long-term scheduler may not be available or minimal. Time-sharing operating systems have no long term scheduler. When a process changes the state from new to ready, then there is use of long-term scheduler.
Short Term Scheduler
It is also called as CPU scheduler. Its main objective is to increase system performance in accordance with the chosen set of criteria. It is the change of ready state to running state of the process. CPU scheduler selects a process among the processes that are ready to execute and allocates CPU to one of them. Short-term schedulers, also known as dispatchers, make the decision of which process to execute next. Short-term schedulers are faster than long-term schedulers.
Medium Term Scheduler
Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping. It removes the processes from the memory. It reduces the degree of multiprogramming. The medium-term scheduler is in-charge of handling the swapped out-processes.
