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If the intensity of a stimulus that is presented to a touch receptor is increased, this tends to increase the _____ in the receptor's axon. rate of nerve firing which of the following statement is the most accurate with regard to specificity coding? It is unlikely to be correct because there are too many stimuli in the world to have a seperate neuron for each regarding children's language development, Noam Chomsky noted that children generate many sentences they have never heard before. From this, he concluded that language development is driven largely by an inborn biological program a high threshold in Treisman's model of attention implies that a high threshold in Treisman's model of attention implies that It takes a strong signal to cause activation if you are folding towels that have just come out of the laundry while watching TV, you may find that you don't have to pay much attention to the process of folding. This sort of familiar task that does not require much of your attention would be an example of what kind of task? low-load the stroop effect demonstrates people's inability to ignore the meaning of words Results of precueing experiments show that participants respond more rapidly to a stimulus that appeared at the ____ location. cued
Imagine that U.S. lawmakers are considering changing the driving laws and that you have been consulted as an attention expert. Given the principles of divided attention, in which of the following conditions would a person have the most difficulty with driving and therefore pose the biggest safety risk on the road? when the person is driving an unfamiliar vehicle that is more difficult to operate In Schneider and Shiffrin's experiment, in which participants were asked to indicate whether a target stimulus was present in a series of rapidly presented "frames," divided attention was easier once processing had become automatic scene schema is knowledge about what is contained in typical scenes During a visit to the local museum, you appreciate the incredible beauty of the paintings displayed on the wall. Your ability to see the paintings as complete pictures rather than individual, disconnected dots of color, texture, and location is because of a process called _______. binding in the monkey business illusion, participant watched a film of people playing basketball. many failed to report that a person in a gorilla suit walked through because participants were counting the number of ball passes at the massachusetts institute of technology symposium on the information theory, george miller presented a paper suggesting that there are limits to the human ability to process information Viewpoint ________ is the ability to recognize the same object even if it is seen from different perspectives. invariance If a word is identified more easily when it is in a sentence than when it is presented alone, this would be an example of _____ processing. top-down "Every stimulus pattern is seen in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible" refers to which Gestalt law? Good Figure/Pragnanz your textbook author points out that studying the mind requires both _______ experiments behavioral; physiological using behavior to infer mental processes is the basic principle of cognitive psychology
according to Baddeley's model of working memory, which of the following mental tasks should LEAST adversely affect people's driving performance while operating a car along an unfamiliar winding road? trying to remember the definition of a word they just learned articulatory suppression does all but which of the following interferes with semantic coding Your text discusses how episodic and semantic memories are interconnected. This discussion revealed that when we experience events, the knowledge that makes up semantic memories is initially attained through a personal experience based on episodic memory Imagine yourself walking from your car, bus stop, or dorm to your first class. Your ability to form such a picture in your mind depends on... visuospatial sketch pad Jill's friends tell her they think she has a really good memory. She finds this interesting so she decides to purposefully test her memory. Jill receives a list of to-do tasks each day at work. Usually, she checks off each item as the day progresses, but this week, she is determined to memorize the to-do lists. On Monday, Jill is proud to find that she remembers 95 percent of the tasks without referring to the list. On Tuesday, her memory drops to 80 percent, and by Thursday, she is dismayed to see her performance has declined to 20 percent. Jill's memory is declining over the course of the week because other information she encounters is "competing" with that which she memorized on Monday. This process is called proactive inference Work with brain-injured patients reveals that ____ memory does not depend on conscious memory implicit and procedural If Peyton Manning, a professional football player, wanted to remember his 16-digit credit card number, which of the following memory techniques would you recommend? He should think of the numbers as a sequence of football statistics When a sparkler is twirled rapidly, people perceive a circle of light. This occurs because... the length of iconic memory (the persistence of vision) is about a fraction of a second the dramatic case of patient H.M. clearly illustrated that ________ is crucial for the formation of LTM's hippocampus K.C., who was injured in a motorcycle accident, remembers facts like the difference between a strike and a spare in bowling, but he is unaware of experiencing things like hearing about the circumstances of his brother's death, which occurred two years before the accident. His memory behavior suggests... intact semantic memory but defective episodic memory
Free recall of the stimulus list "apple, desk, shoe, sofa, plum, chair, cherry, coat, lamp, pants" will most likely yield which of these response patterns? "apple, cherry, plum, shoe, coat, lamp, chair, pants" the principle that we encode information together with its context is known as encoding specificity Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval. This is called transfer-appropriate processing retrograde amnesia is usually less severe for ______ memories remote Elaborative rehearsal of a word will LEAST likely be accomplished by repeating it over and over Hebb's idea of long-term potentiation, which provides a physiological mechanism for the long-term storage of memories, includes the idea of increased firing in neurons ____________ consolidation involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a fairly long time scale, lasting weeks, months, or even years systems According to the multiple trace model, the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of... remote, episodic memories recent research on memory, based largely on fear conditioning in rats, indicates that when a memory is reactivated it becomes capable of being changed or altered, just as it was immediately after it formed The observation that older adults often become nostalgic for the "good old days" reflects the self-image hypothesis, which states that... memory for life events is enhanced during the time we assume our life identities Extrapolating from the cultural life script hypothesis, which of the following events would be easiest to recall? graduating from college at 22 Stanny and Johnson's "weapons focus" experiment, investigating memory for crime scenes, found that the presence of a weapon hinders memory for other parts of the event
trial 2 will have the longest time trial 3 will have the shortest time because its most common if asked to answer "yes" to a true statement and "no" to false ones, people are faster to respond to a sentence like ________ and this is called the ____________- an apple is a fruit; typicality effect Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" or "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization. prototype in comparing the prototype and exemplar approaches, which of the following is NOT true the prototype approach offers a better explanation of family resemblance According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience. basic the ____ model includes associations between concepts and the property of spreading activation semantic network One of the key properties of the _____ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network. connectionist Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of _____ in which an error signal is transmitted from output units towards the input units and is represented by adjustments to network
back propagation; connection weights One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation "Early" researchers of imagery (beginning with Aristotle until just prior to the dominance of behaviorism) proposed _______ while behaviorists said studying imagery was ______ studying images was a way of studying thinking; unproductive bc/imagery is only visible to the experiencer shepard and meltzer's image rotation experiment measured the time it took to decide whether 2 objects were the same ( different views of the same object) or different (2 different object) they inferred that _______ using the technique of ____________
imagery and perception may share the same mechanisms; mental chronometry Kosslyn's mental island experiment using ________ procedure found that it took people ___________ to mentally travel between locations that were farther away from each other versus close together mental scanning; longer Kosslyn and colleagues found support for the idea that mental images are ____________ representations, while Pylyshyn argued that the mental images are ___________ representations spatial; propositional Suppose that, as a participant in an imagery study, you are asked to memorize the four outside walls of a three-story rectangular house. Later, you are asked to report how many windows are on the front of the house. You will probably be fastest to answer this question if you create an image as though you were standing at the other side of the road Perky's experiment, in which participants were asked to "project" visual images of common objects onto a screen, showed that imagery and perception can interact with one another Kosslyn's transcranial magnetic stimulation experiment on brain activation that occurs in response to imagery found that the brain activity in the visual cortex plays a causal role in both perception and imagery In explaining the paradox that imagery and perception exhibit a double dissociation, Behrmann and coworkers suggested that perception necessarily involves _____ processing and imagery starts as a _____ process. bottom-up; top-down which property below is not one of the characteristics that makes human language unique? communication Evidence that language is a social process that must be learned comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they invent a sign language One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children produce sentences they have never heard in the phonemic restoration effect, participants "fill in" the missing phoneme based on all of the following except
saw in a rainbow and found they reported the same number of bands as their language processed primary color words. these results support the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis The principle illustrated when most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no one category member may have all the characteristic properties of "chairs" or that people who look alike might be relatives is family resemblance definitional approach to categorization the idea that we can decide whether something is a member of a category by determining whether the object meets the definition of the category prototype approach to categorization membership in a category is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category exemplar approach to categorization The approach to categorization in which members of a category are judged against exemplars, examples of members of the category that the person has encountered in the past. anaphoric inference an inference that connects an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence instrument inference an inference about tools or methods that occurs while reading text or listening to speech casual inference A statement about cause and effect that claims that a change in one variable is the cause of a change in another variable. Behaviorists believe that the presentation of_______ increases the frequency of behavior. positive reinforcers By comparing reaction times across different tasks, Donders was able to conclude how long the mind needs to perform a certain cognitive task. Donders interpreted the difference in reaction time between the simple and choice conditions of his experiment as indicating how long it took to make a decision about the stimulus. Ebbinghaus's "memory" experiments were important because they plotted functions that described the operation of the mind
In Donders' experiment on decision-making, when participants were asked to press a button upon presentation of a light, they were engaged in a _______ task, while when they were asked to press one button if the light on the left was illuminated and another button for the right, they were engaged in a _________________ task. simple reaction time; choice reaction time The first experiments in cognitive psychology were based on the idea that mental responses can be inferred from the participant's behavior. he first formal laboratory of psychology was founded by ________________ , where the approach of ______________ was created. wundt; structuralism The procedure in which trained participants describe their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli presented under controlled conditions is known as analytic introspection. Using behavior to infer mental processes is the basic principle of cognitive psychology. Which of the following are the two primary categories of models in cognitive psychology? Structural models and process models Which of the following events is most closely associated with a resurgence in interest in the mind within the study of psychology? Skinner's publication of the book, Verbal Behavior Which of the following is a criticism of analytic introspection? It produces variable results from person to person Who introduced the flow diagram to represent what is happening in the mind? Donald Broadbent Barbara has recently been diagnosed with a rather aggressive form of abdominal cancer. Her oncologist is interested in determining the best way to treat her so that the tumors can be eliminated. Her gastroenterologist is focused on relieving her symptoms and giving her normal digestive functioning. Barbara is also seeing a psychologist, whose goal is to help her stay calm, relaxed, and keep her anxiety as minimal as possible while keeping her spirits up. The fact that these doctors are considering Barbara's situation with different goals and from different perspectives is similar to the idea of___________________ presented in your textbook. levels of analysis Brain-imaging techniques can determine all of the following EXCEPT
fragile-glass; structural In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the ________ group had the fastest response time. bread and butter In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that __________ may be more important than ___________ in creative thinking. flexibility; experience In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the __________ approach developed by Ronald Finke. divergent thinking Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems. Newell & Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems, which introduced the information processing approach. This approach describes problem solving as a process that involves search The elements of the problem space include all of the following EXCEPT operators The radiation problem was used in your text to illustrate the role of _______ in problem solving. analogy Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinder solving a problem? two-string problem You are interested in studying the time course language comprehension. Specifically, you are interested in the very fast processes that occur within milliseconds of hearing a word. Which of the following techniques should you employ? ERP's The "poverty of the stimulus" argument states that children can produce linguistic stimuli that they have never been exposed to
The idea of a grandmother cell is consistent with specificity coding Action potentials occur in the axon Watson's "Little Albert" experiment (involving the bunny and the loud noise) relied on classical conditioning the procedure in which trained participants describe their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli presented under controlled conditions is known as analytic introspection David is trying to tell his wife about his day, but his speech is very slow and labored, often with jumbled sentence structure. David may have damage to his Broca's Area Hillary Clinton's face is represented in the nervous system by the firing of a group of neurons each responding to a number of different faces Brain imaging has made it possible to determine which areas of the brain are involved in different cognitive processes John Watson believed that psychology should focus on the study of observable behavior A parent tells their child to behave. The child responds "I am being have." His response reveals that when listening he made a speech segmentation error a mental conception of the layout of a physical space is known as cognitive map Gestalt theory differs in its approach to perception from Helmholtz's theory of unconscious inference in that it focuses less on top-down processing The image below appears to show a convex dot on the left and a concave dot on the right. However, if you turn it upside down, they will appear opposite because the light from above assumption Which of the following does NOT characterize the information processing (IP) approach to the study of cognition?
- Donder
- Ebbinghaus
- Wundt Early 1900s' view on cognitive psych: what arises? Behaviorism Who refutes the argument from behaviorism? Tolman conducted a study suggesting that rates form internal mental maps and learn faster when following these maps, rather than who rewarded for a specific behavior. By the mid-1900s, what happened to the field of cognitive psych? Growing numbers of AI and computers, the field of cognition was born, the first textbook was published. Dendrites the "input"; receiving information from the environment/other neurons
- Shorter
- Passive current
- Numerous amount
Axon the "output"; sending the information gathered to subsequent neurons
- Longer
- Active current
- Only one
- Can be myelinated
Cell body/soma contains mechanisms to keep the cell alive
- Dendrites and axons are both processes that extend from the soma
Synaspe a small gap between the end of a neuron's axon and the dendrites or cell body of another neuron; where neurotransmitters are released
Facts about neurons -Neurons are not physically connected -Neurons come in many different types varying in shape, size, connection, etc. How is information transferred in the nervous system? (step 1)
- Neurons receive a signal that is either a chemical form or a physical form
- Receptor cells (sensory neurons)
- Physical
- Rods, cones, or touch
-Interneurons
- A neuron that transmits impulses between other neurons, especially as part of a reflex arc
- Chemical form How is information transferred in the nervous system? (step 2)
- Sodium diffuses down through the dendrites and cell body
- Passive current; strong enough to reach a threshold point before action current can begin How is information transferred in the nervous system? (step 3)
- The electrical signal is activated and travels quickly down the axon to the axon terminals
- But only if the current is strong enough when it reaches the axon
- Size of neuron
- How far away it is from the axon
- Number of signals
- action potential
- myelin sheath action potential
reaches its maximum, the Na+ channels become inactive, and the K+ channels open, causing K+ ions to rush out of the neuron, restoring the neuron's electrical charge from positive to negative. Myelin Sheath
- Nothing is exchanged
- Gives a speed advantage; makes signal travel faster
- Where myelin is wrapped around the axons, the ion channels are unable to open
- Develop as you develop
How is information transferred in the nervous system? (step 4)
- This causes the release of neurotransmitters at the synapse and the process starts all over in the next neuron
- Neurons receive a signal that is in either a chemical or physical form How are messages transmitted from one neuron to the next?
- the action potential stimulates the release of neurotransmitters
- neurotransmitters float across the synapse, and
- bind with receptors on the dendrite of the next neuron
- Depending on whether the message is excitatory or inhibitory, the binding of the neurotransmitters may initiate an action potential in the receiving neuron or they might inhibit an action potential in the receiving neuron intensity coding Intensity coding: how strong is a stimulus?
- more action potentials = more intense stimulus
Quality coding Quality coding: what type of stimulus is it?
- Temporal codes: pattern of cell firing (tap, tap, tap, tap vs tap, tap...tap, tap
- Different qualities activate different neurons
- Feature detectors in the visual system
- Feature detectors for conscious perception
- Specificity coding
- Sparse coding
- Population coding Specificity coding Specificity coding: specialized neurons that respond to one concept/stimulus
Sparse coding Sparse coding: stimuli are represented by the pattern of firing across a small number of neurons
Population coding Population coding: stimuli are represented by the pattern of firing across a large number of neurons
Temporal cortex neurons Temporal cortex neurons: neurons respond to more and more complex stimuli, so eventually specific neurons will respond to specific stimuli (ex. FFA) Neuronal Recording Neuronal Recording: a microelectrode can be carefully inserted into the axon of the cell so the firing rate of that cell can be recorded Single Cell Recording a technique by which the firing rate and pattern of a single neuron can be measured in response to varying sensory input
Pros: high spatial resolution and precise timing (temporal) (when and where brain activity occurs)
