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PSYC 3320 EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE, Exams of Social Sciences

United States International UniversitySocial Sciences

PSYC 3320 EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE 2026

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2025/2026

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PSYC 3320 EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE
Role of attention
- Stay focused and avoid distractions
- take your attention span into account
-when attention is divided between two tasks, one or both will suffer (ex: homework and
tv)
- limit to amount of time a person can sustain attention--usu. 20-25 minutes but depends
on interest too
-avoid distractions/dividing attention
-quiet place to study (no tv)
-think of questions if bored
Interpretation and elaboration (study techniques)
-interpretation= really understanding what you're trying to learn
- understand what you are learning, what it means
-elaboration=breadth of processing (relate info to your own life experiences or other
knowledge)
-compare and contrast
varied practice (study techniques)
- think about the material in different ways
-think about concepts or phenomena using different examples
- use the information in different situation
study in different locations
-consider different examples
spaced repetition (study techniques)
-study material more than once
-space study sessions--keep up with reading, go over notes as you go then more
beneficial before in days before exam
- space materials within study sessions (change topics or cover specific info at spaced
intervals)
-start early to maximize spacing
- alternate among different topics
organize and structure
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PSYC 3320 EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE

Role of attention

  • Stay focused and avoid distractions
  • take your attention span into account
  • when attention is divided between two tasks, one or both will suffer (ex: homework and tv)
  • limit to amount of time a person can sustain attention--usu. 20-25 minutes but depends on interest too
  • avoid distractions/dividing attention
  • quiet place to study (no tv)
  • think of questions if bored Interpretation and elaboration (study techniques)
  • interpretation= really understanding what you're trying to learn
  • understand what you are learning, what it means
  • elaboration=breadth of processing (relate info to your own life experiences or other knowledge)
  • compare and contrast varied practice (study techniques)
  • think about the material in different ways
  • think about concepts or phenomena using different examples
  • use the information in different situation study in different locations
  • consider different examples spaced repetition (study techniques)
  • study material more than once
  • space study sessions--keep up with reading, go over notes as you go then more beneficial before in days before exam
  • space materials within study sessions (change topics or cover specific info at spaced intervals)
  • start early to maximize spacing
  • alternate among different topics organize and structure
  • read outline and summary first
  • look and graphs and illustrations
  • preview section headings and read summaries before whole chapter
  • pay attention to the organization or structure inherent in the information (cues to organization from book, notes well org, org info is easier to remember) visualization (study technique)
  • reinstate the context during a test
  • visualization of the content (diagrams, graphs, maps)
  • visualization performing a skill
  • visualization of test taking context
  • mental reinstatement of learning context generation
  • generate answers to questions and missing information before looking them up
  • generation= trying to generate info before it is given (works even if wrong, highlighting helps only to find info, generate notes or summaries after every couple of paragraphs, think of answers to instructor questions) retrieval practice
  • practice retrieving the information
  • retrieval practice: look at keywords and generate all the related information you can remember, produce from mem ALL info in notes , flashcards or list of key terms
  • retrieval practice makes info more likely to be remembered later and leads to good long-term retention
  • more effective than re-reading over and over
  • good way to monitor learning, whether you know material well enough
  • very effective technique Wundt (1880s) introspection
  • think carefully about processing to recall, careful procedure but very limited, no longer used
  • the capacity to reflect and transport our ongoing thoughts
  • not reliable because people differ in what they appear to experience in a given situation and we are consciously aware of a relatively small proportion of the mechanisms underpinning our mental life - good to generate ideas and the ideas are tested with different techniques Herman Ebbinghaus(1880s)
  • lose a lot of info, not all retained
  • not objective--very subjective, influences, attitudes, emotions Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968) Sensory Stores (visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory) updated quickly; small amount retained --> STM (temporary working memory, rehearsal, make decisions) updated often but not as quickly sensory aka working memory; a lot of things pass through here; respond to things--> <-- LTM (permanent memory store) *** Modal Model *** Sensory Memory (iconic) Automatic, large capacity, constantly updated
  • visual
  • sparklers (wave hand while holding a sparklers in a dark room, it leaves a trail and fades
  • movies (sequence of static images is presented rapidly with blank intervals in between but it is perceived as a continuous moving image) Sensory memory (echoic) Automatic, large capacity, constantly updated
  • auditory
  • direction of sound (if sudden sound, we turn to direction it came from, hits ears differently perceiving speech: have to keep words in sensory memory Sperling study with 12 letter display (1960)
  • showed 12 letters and then have them record them
  • Flashed display for 50 ms
  • under "full report" (having to remember all 12) conditions, participants could report 4- 5 items out of 12
  • under partial report (only one line depending on pitch heard) conditions, participants could report about 3 items
  • Sperling concluded that they must have encoded 9 of the original 12 but forgot some before they could be reported; the 9 encoded was in their sensory but didn't go to STM Duration, relative duration of iconic and echoic
  • echoic memory lasts longer than iconic memory
  • in a study of 9-digit phone numbers they presented auditorily or visually
  • equivalent memory for 1st 6 items
  • auditory better for last three items attended information moved from sensory stores to STM
  • information stays in sensory memory only for a few seconds
  • iconic memory and echoic memory last only a few seconds but echoic lasts slightly longer how information goes between sensory registers, STM and LTM
  • information that a person pays attention to is what goes from sensory memory to STM
  • information that is rehearsed sufficiently goes from STM to LTM
  • information in LTM can be retrieved and brought back into STM for use attended information moved from sensory stores to STM episodic/ semantic LTM
  • Information stored over a long time episodic= remembering particular incidents semantic= knowledge about the world implicit/ explicit LTM
  • Information stored over a long time explicit = directly measured (recall) implicit = indirectly measured (skill learning, changes in speed or accuracy due to prior experience) ex of using both at the same time: doing a puzzle the second time

Patient has process A impaired but process B intact (A ^, B /)

  • task A requires areas/processes not necessary for B ex: HM had problems in episodic LTM but not in STM
  • Specified deficit is separate or dissociated from deficits in other cognitive functions Logic of neuropsychological studies: double dissociation one patient (or group) has A impaired and B intact, while another has A intact and B impaired
  • A and B use different parts of the brain
  • two patient groups show opposite patterns of deficit ex: normal STM and impaired LTM vs. impaired STM and normal LTM Logic of neuropsychological studies: association Impairment in A always accompanied by impairment in B
  • A and B rely on the same processes or parts of the brain cognitive neuroscience study of how activity of the brain is related to different cognitive processes factors to consider: spatial resolution cm vs mm vs μm
  • how accurately the measured activity is localised within the brain. factors to consider: temporal resolution min vs. sec vs ms how closely the measured activity corresponds to the timing of the actual neuronal activity. factors to consider: invasiveness level of risk, harm or discomfort to participant Direct Brain stimulation
  • Penfield
  • Minute electrical charges delivered to brain
  • previously done to exposed brain during surgery
  • Now, implant grid on surface of brain in preliminary surgery
  • EEG used to monitor seizure activity during testing
  • used for planning in removing brain tumor or removing areas in epileptic seizures originate
  • see what tasks are interrupted
  • can only do with patients already having brain surgery
  • **medium spatial, high temporal, highly invasive Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
  • a magnetic field pulse is passed through the brain to focus on a particular area
  • voltage of activity changes and shuts down or interrupts processing in that area
  • localization of cognitive processes is determined by seeing what cognitive tasks are interrupted by a magnetic pulse to a particular area
  • placement of two coils on scalp is crucial to make sure they zap the right area
  • **low-medium spatial, high temporal, low invasive
  • Cost: equipment 30-60k depending on bells and whistles; maintenance and sessions have minimal cost Functional Magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (how it works)
  1. blood supplies oxygen to the brain
  2. active neurons require more oxygen
  3. oxygenated and de-oxygenated blood have different levels of magnetism
  • when areas of brain are active, magnetic properties change
  1. magnetic signal is compared for different experimental conditions
  2. areas more active (stronger signal) for one condition than another are identified Functional Magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) other info
  • medium spatial, medium temporal, low invasive
  • full body MRI scanner costs upwards of $1.5 million, needs its own building or major renovation
  • maintenance is expensive, usually have full-time engineer on board
  • institutions typically charge the researcher $500 or more per hour for use
  • standard hospitals must be modified for functional imaging
  • participants often limited financially structural scan provides detailed anatomical pictures of the brain

temporal resolution)

  • activity is measured at several points on the scalp
  • however, it is diffused and activity from a large area of the brain can reach each electrode site. therefore it is difficult to localize the activity with precision Evoked response potentials (ERPs) electrical activity following presentation of a stimulus is examined and compared to that of other types of stimuli or resting activity
  • **low spatial, high temporal, low invasive
  • equipment costs 30-80k, depending on several factors, little maintenance cost
  • sessions do not incur substantial costs measuring information processing is difficult because
  • mental processes not directly observable
  • we are not aware of all our mental processes
  • measurement of cognitive processes is indirect, but informative (like a factory--see everything going in and out but not really processes inside) Digit Span (capacity) 7 +/- 2 (traditional)
  • usually what you can say in 1.33-1.5 seconds Digit Span-how the task is done (capacity) read numbers to them at one per second and have them repeat back start with 1 then work your way up to 2, 3, 4,
  • do each number twice until the person cannot do it
  • stm capacity considered when they can read back at least half correctly Digit span- normal span (capacity) normal span is 7+/- 2 when read 1 per second
  • increases with rhythmic grouping (ex: : phone number NOT 7 4 7 8 9 25, read as 747-
  • more difficult in reverse order (don't remember as many backwards)
  • shorter span with longer words Digit Span- Welsch-English study (capacity)
  • Welsh-English bilingual children had higher digit span in English than in Welsh, because the number words are shorter. What that shows is the importance of articulation time in the digit span measure (or measures of short-term memory more generally).
  • Some languages have all numbers with one syllables; some have two or three syllables Because it takes time to say longer number words, it can shorten the span. People who are bilingual tend to have better repeating in their more proficient language (all things equal) Ellis was working in Wales and students who spoke well in native were not scoring as well as those speaking English; depends on time it takes to articulate the words; when had numbers in English and welsh, did better in English because they were shorter Forgetting from STM Items are lost when:
  • attention is diverted (in middle of sentence and phone rings, might forget what rest of sentence was)
  • rehearsal is prevented (not able to say information over and over)
  • new items are learned (can only hold so many things--if holding 7 items then learn an 8th, might forget one)
  • ex: trying to count money and someone else is saying number out loud causing you to push out what you had Peterson task demo (Forgetting from STM) Study a few items and then do mental arithmetic to prevent rehearsal ex: Bear, cow, lion 5 +9 - 7 +4 - 8 - 3 +2 - 5 Recall
  • recall is more difficult after mental arithmetic rather than rehearsal
  • for the first trial, most remember the three items but as we continue with trials it declines until we change categories (release from proactive inhibition) Proactive inhibition paradigm (wickens) and its release demo (Forgetting from STM) Proactive inhibition: words from same category for a few trials--performance declines increased difficulty of learning or remembering a set of words after that set had been learned in a previous, different context Release:
  • category changes and performance recovers bc of release from proactive inhibition

recall task

  • the word snore was presented twice and remembered well because they were not presented right after each other
  • good for memory Von Restorff effect = Distinctiveness effect
  • recall task
  • the word gorilla was well remembered because it did not fit the theme
  • Von Restorff was one of few women in cognitive psychology at the time
  • can also work if it is a list of numbers and one letter will be well remembered because it is distinct semantic intrusion
  • falsely recalled because it fit the theme of the list
  • semantic is having to do with meaning
  • intrusion= not supposed to be there
  • in recall task, a few people recalled "sleep" even though it was never mentioned because it fit the theme with the other words
  • consistent across different themes and languages phonological intrusion errors are often putting together wrong combination of sounds
  • mad cap cat map cad
  • vowels are the same in all and begins with m or c
  • might study man and cap and then later remember map
  • common to mix them up
  • intrusion based on how it sounds Conrad study (1964) study of recall of letter strings with hearing and deaf
  • letter sequences (eg., R S V X D) were presented and recalled
  • Conrad searched for two error types:
  • Visual: O & Q ; E & F
  • Acoustic: D&T; B&V
  • first presented them acoustically (expts 1& 2) and had them read aloud and then repeat, predicted they would make sound/acoustic errors
  • made acoustic errors, not surprising
  • Expt 3: visual presentation, saw letters and had to recall them, predicted they would make visual errors
  • BUT they made acoustic errors Why acoustic when presented visually? because it is recoded phonologically in their mind as they rehearsed it like they were saying it, what we read ends up being encoded in a phonological way Expt 4: Visual with deaf participants Two sub groups, one with training in speaking and the other did not have training
  • the group with speaking training had acoustic similarity errors
  • group w/o speaking training/ only sign language had sign-similarity errors
  • suggests that if someone cannot hear words but can articulate it--consistent with sign language because it is their method of communication Meaning of Conrad's results
  • visual information can be re-coded into phonological form for STM storage (expt 3)
  • sound/phonology is important to STM
  • Errors that appear to be acoustic are really articulatory because speaking deaf participants who had never heard sound still showed these errors LTM vs STM (healthy subject)
  • serial position effects
  • primacy effect lasts (LTM) but recency effect does not last (STM)
  • Error types in recall
  • STM has mostly sound based errors BUT LTM has mostly meaning based errors LTM vs STM (amnesic patients)
  • some amnesiacs who are severely impaired at learning new facts and remembering events have normal digit span
  • intact STM, impaired LTM
  • other patients have limited digit span but can learn relatively normally
  • impaired STM, intact LTM
  • double dissociation
  • These patients have damage to different parts of the brain (hippocampus & left hemisphere)
  • in first case it would be hippocampus and second would be left hemisphere
  • supports the idea that STM and LTM are different parts problems with Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

tendency to make sound-based errors in recall from STM ex: mad cat cap mat or can man mat cap

  • assumed to occur at retrieval
  • disappears if the lists are increased in length and participants are allowed several learning trials irrelevant speech effect (phonological or articulatory effect) recall is disrupted when other speech sounds are presented
  • e.g., someone talks to you while you are rehearsing
  • speech interferes more than tones
  • singing interferes more than instrumental music ex: saying numbers after 3 words to remember in Peterson demonstration word length effect (phonological or articulatory effect) can remember more words if they are shorter
  • can be pronounced and rehearsed faster
  • they are not forgotten before the next rehearsal
  • shorter words rehearsed faster:
  • dog & cat vs. hippopotamus & pomegranate
  • if word has 5 syllables, can't remember as well, forget as you're going articulatory suppression making participants do repetitive speech while learning ("the the the...") effects of articulatory suppression (phonological or articulatory effect)
  • prevents rehearsal of other information in the phonological loop.
  • eliminates other effects like the phonological similarity effect, the irrelevant speech effect and the word length effect making participants do repetitive speech while learning ("the the the...")
  • this prevents visual information from being recoded into the phonological store
  • articulatory suppression eliminates word length effect, phonological similarity effect and irrelevant speech effect
  • it is difficult to count during articulatory suppression but not difficult to read most things relationship between articulation time and memory span
  • you can remember what you can say in about 1.33-1.5 seconds
  • fast talkers have a longer span than slow talkers on verbal memory tests
  • this means the maximum talking speed, no the speed people choose to talk in normal

conversation

  • numbers with multiple syllables can't hold as many. auditory imagery
  • difficult to understand
  • we can imagine sounds that we cannot produce (music, animal sounds, construction sounds etc.)
  • we can read and understand text without imagining that we hear it spoken aloud
  • adults read in a fluent language
  • not purely articulatory or purely imagining listening to something Amnesic patient PV
  • young woman with pure auditory STM deficit
  • problems understanding complex long sentences, but no other noticeable language deficits
  • native language was Italian
  • Experiment: PV was taught Russian vocabulary and her phonological learning was tested paired associate learning study with patient PV and healthy controls Cond 1:
  • PV learned Italian paired associates (cavallo-libro)
  • PV performed normally on this task compared to healthy controls (matched on age and education) Cond 2:
  • learned Italian-Russian paired associates that happened to be translation equivalents (rosa-svieti)
  • PV could not learn any of these words but the controls could Controls under Articulatory Suppression
  • A.S. had no effect on native-language paired associates
  • A.S. had detrimental effect on learning foreign vocabulary more on phonological loop as language acquisition device
  • possible relationship between digit span (phonological loop capacity) and rate of L learning
  • 1st language learning: performance repeating back nonsense word is good predictor of vocabulary acquisition Effects of mental imagery on memory (visuo-spatial sketch pad)

is imagery visual or spatial brooks study was also done using pointing task with raised letters

  • interfered more than pointing to visual letters
  • imagery is more spatial than visual
  • mental rotation function is same for blind as for seeing participants
  • patient double dissociation:
  • some can identify objects but not locate them spatially
  • other have intact spatial skills but cannot answer simple questions that depend on visual characteristics (eg color, relative size
  • suggests separation between visual and spatial aspects of memory. Central executive (functions)
  • controls phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketch pad
  • allocate attention
  • relates information to LTM
  • more difficult to isolate and study
  • capacity measures involve both processing and memory--remembering last words of sentences
  • 4 is good more sentences=more difficult
  • might start with 2 then work up to 5-6 until participants cant ex:
  • the dog barked all night long
  • He did not know about the party
  • Yesterday our class had a test
  • Four children were playing outside **have to recall long, party, test and outside N-Back test N-back task (central executive) N=number Two-Back task: report whether the item matches the one that came two positions before
  • can be done visually (show on screen one at a time) or auditorily (read to participant) 2 back is usually okay with most, 3 and 4 back is hard, 1 back is easy

Purpose of N-Back measure central executive function capacity

  • divide attention--> create cognitive load while participants do another task problems Baddeley identified with his Original Model
  • Not clear how working memory was linked to long term memory
  • we clearly use information from LTM for chunking and making STM more efficient
  • Added episodic buffer component
  • storage system to hold information in multidimensional code
  • capacity of about 4 chunks
  • used to form new associations, binding previously unrelated concepts
  • we often want information help in WM to transfer to LTM episodic buffer storage system to hold information in multi-dimensional code, allowing the various subcomponents of working memory to interact with long term memory
  • capacity of about 4 chunks
  • in original model, the episodic buffer is controlled by the central executive
  • used to form new associations, binding previously unrelated concepts
  • it assumed to be able to hold episodes or chunks based on a range of different dimensions including visual, verbal and semantic updates to Baddeley model the first update (2000) introduces the episodic buffer and links working memory to "crystallized systems". The 2012 update changes the linkage of the episodic buffer and details how information can enter the system (e.g., reading, listening, viewing shape or color, etc.)