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SRI RAMACHANDRA INSTITUTE OF HIGHER EDUCATION & RESEARCH
FACULTY OF ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES
B.Sc. Psychology Internal Assessment – II Notes Portions UNIT – I: General Issues in Psychological Assessment: Assessment and data collection, processing assessment data and communicating the findings Psychological Assessments A Psychological test is a systematic procedure for obtaining samples of behaviour, relevant to cognition, affective, or interpersonal functioning and for scoring and evaluating those samples according to standards. In its simplest form psychological assessments are just simply behaviour samples. Everything else is based on inference. TYPES OF TESTS The tests can also be sorted into 8 categories as mentioned below. However, it is to be noted that any typology of tests is a purely arbitrary determination and can be divided as per other types of dichotomy. 1) Intelligence Tests : These were originally designed to sample a broad assortment of skills in order to estimate the individual’s general intellectual level. In general, the term intelligence tests refers to a test that yields an overall summary score based on results from a heterogeneous sample of items. Of course such, such a test might also provide a profile of subtest scores as well, but it is the overall score that generally attracts the most attention. 2) Aptitude Tests : These measure one or more clearly defined and relatively homogenous segments of ability. Such tests come in two varieties: a single aptitude tests and multiple aptitude test batteries. A single aptitude test appraises, obviously, only one ability, whereas a multiple aptitude test battery provides a profile of scores for number of aptitudes. Aptitude tests are often used to predict success in an occupation, training course, or educational endeavour. Specialised aptitude tests also exist for the assessment of clerical skills, mechanical abilities,
manual dexterity, and artistic ability. The most common use of aptitude tests is to determine college admissions. 3) Achievement tests: These measures a person’s degree of learning, success, or accomplishment in a subject matter. The implicit assumption of most achievement tests is that the schools have taught the subject matter directly. The purpose of the test is to determine how much of the material the subject has absorbed or mastered. Achievement tests commonly have several subtests, such as reading, mathematics, language, science, and social studies. Aptitude Vs. Achievement Tests – What is the difference? The distinction between aptitude and achievement tests is more a matter of use than content. In fact, any test can be an aptitude test to the extent that it helps predict future performance. Likewise, any test can be an achievement tests if it reflects how much the subject has learned. In practice, then, the distinction between these two kinds of instruments is determined by their respective uses. 4) Projective Tests: It is a psychological test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts. They are designed to evoke highly individual variety responses with less conscious control. Less dependent on the subject’s willingness or ability to give personal information. Subjects are unaware of the purpose of the test and unable to judge how particular responses are interpreted. 5) Personality Tests : These measures the traits, qualities, or behaviours that determine a person’s individuality; this information helps predict future behaviour. These tests come in several different varieties, including checklists, inventories, and projective tests. The best known of the projective tests is the Rorschach, a Swiss psychiatrist, perceived the possibilities inherent in the ink-blot test as a device for differentiating among various kinds and traits of personalities. Another test is the Thematic Apperception Test. It contains 30 rather ambiguous pictures, each on a separate cart and 1 blank card. The person being examined is asked to make a story of his/ her own, for each picture. The principle is that his/her stories, the examinee will probably give expression to his/her need. values, attitudes and feeling about person’s situation in the world around him/her. 6) Interest Inventories : These measure an individual’s preference for certain activities or topics and thereby help determine occupational choice. These tests are based upon the explicit assumption that interest patterns determine and therefore also predict job satisfaction.
It refers to the consistency or uniformity of the conditions and procedures for administering and scoring the test. Ethical issues in Psychological Testing : Psychological Testing needs to be conducted in a fair and ethical manner, in accordance with relevant equal opportunities legislation and professional codes of practice. Professional bodies have ethical codes of practice, often including specific codes, and anyone making assessments should be familiar with the relevant code of practice. Several testing organizations have published practice guidelines to help define the scope of responsible test use. Some ethical issues of testing are as follows 1.Confidentiality- Practitioners have a primary obligation to safeguard the confidentiality of information, including test results, that they obtain from clients in the course of consultations Information obtained in clinical or consulting relationships, or evaluative data concerning children, students, employees and others are discussed only for professional purposes and only with persons clearly concerned with the case.
- Informed Consent-Before individuals undergo assessment they should give their consent and, whatever the purpose, have a right to withdraw it. They have a right to know what is about to happen, why it is needed, and understand the implications of information given. Informed consent implies that the test takers or representatives are made aware, in language that they can understand, of the reasons for testing, the type of tests to be used, the intended use and the range of material consequences of the intended use. If written, video, or audio records are made of the testing session, or other records are kept, test takers are entitled to know what testing information will be released and to whom. 3.Labelling- After the Psychological testing, a person is often subjected with certain mental disorder. The labeling process may not only stigmatize the person but also lower tolerance for stress and make treatment more difficult. In view of the potentially negative effects of labels, a person should have the right not to be labeled.
- Data Protection- Test-takers must protect the client’s information. Sensitive data could include a person’s:
- Ethnic origin
- Beliefs and opinions, for example on religion or politics
- Disabilities
- State of physical or mental health
- Sexual orientation
- Any convictions, offences committed or legal proceedings
- Invasion of Privacy- When people respond to psychological tests, they have little idea what is being revealed, but they often feel that their privacy has been invaded in a way not justified by the test’s benefits. Psychologists must inform subjects of the limits of confidentiality.
- Communication of Test Results- Individuals who take psychological tests anticipate that the results will be shared with them. Yet practitioners often do not include one-to-one feedback as part of the assessment.
- Consideration of Individual Differences- Knowledge of and respect for individual differences is highlighted by all professional organizations that deal with psychological testing. The American Psychological Association lists this as one of six guiding principles. The relevance of this principle to psychological testing is that practitioners are expected to know when a test or interpretation may not be applicable because of factors such as age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status.
- Divided Loyalties- It is the often conflicting commitments of the psychologist who uses tests. A conflict arises when the individual’s welfare is at odds with that of the institution that employs the psychologist. Psychologists must inform all concerned where their loyalty lies. They must tell clients or subjects in advance how tests are to be used and describe the limits of confidentiality.
- Test Security- Test materials must be kept secure. Test items are not revealed except in training programs and when mandated by law, to protect test integrity.
- Human Rights violation- Different kinds of human rights are relevant to psychological testing, including the right not to be tested. Individuals, who do not want to subject themselves to testing, cannot be forced to do so. It is their right to know their test scores and interpretations as well as the bases of any decisions that affect their lives. The subjects have right to know who will have access to test data and the right to confidentiality of test results (APA, 2010).
- Dehumanization- With high-speed computers and centralized data banks, the risk that machines will someday make important decisions about our lives is always increasing. Such forms of testing remove any human element from decision-making process. Technology tends to minimize individual freedom and uniqueness.
Bias in Psychological Testing
- What is bias? Bias can be defined as an inclination towards or prejudice for or against a specific person or group of people. It is also defined as general pattern or tendency to think and behave in a specific way In psychological testing, bias refers to a factor that is inherent within a test that prevents valid, accurate, and impartial measurement. → systematic error in the measurement process that differentially influences scores for identified groups Bias occurs if score differences on the indicators of a particular construct (e.g., percentage of students knowing that War-saw is Poland’s capital) do not correspond to differences in the underlying trait or ability (e.g., geography knowledge).
- Impact of bias Bias may lead to issues in fair testing. It will influence the validity and reliability of not only test scores, but of also the clinical interpretation of test scores and assessment observations, and thus influence the overall outcome of the psychological testing/assessment procedure in a negative and often discriminatory way, thus infringing upon ethical standards Diminish or exaggerate the actual association, create association when there actually is none, or hides an association that actually exists
- Ways to identify Bias Bias in psychological testing has been examined using several different methods. The trinitarian model of validity (content validity, criterion-related validity, and construct validity) has been used to provide a framework to investigate bias in tests. Combination of methods including statistical techniques and judgmental review can be used to identify potential bias.
- content-related sources
- response-related sources
- differences in internal test structure
- differential predication or selection across groups
In order to determine the source of bias on tests, psychometric or technical, quantitative approaches are used, particularly at the item or task level, to see whether predictions can be made. Different techniques yield somewhat different findings, but the focus is on the responses of the student as scored by usual procedures.
- Types of bias in psychological testing Test Bias - Test bias refers to the differential validity of test scores for groups (e.g., age, education, culture, race, sex). So the test might not be valid for all age groups. - Bias can be internal (psychometric properties, test structure) or external (differential prediction/selection) to the test. Cultural Bias What is considered wise in one society may not be considered wise in another Culture and background may lead to the inaccuracy of assessments The value and meaning of intelligence depend on cultural norm Response Bias Cognitive biases in which the respondent feels compelled to respond in a certain way rather than reflect their true beliefs Social desirability Interpreter Bias/Scoring Bias Information processing bias – refers to the inappropriate interpretation of ambiguous stimuli, scenarios, observations or even test scores bias may reside in the assessment process is in the method of scoring or how the scoring rules are applied to judge performance Confirmation Bias Attention to information that confirms the examiner’s/psychologist’s beliefs/expectations, and ignoring other information Tendency to search for or looking for specific traits and states of a given psychopathology to confirm a premade diagnosis as opposed to taking to account any and all available information presented by the client. Interpret information in a way that conforms one’s preconceptions Administration Bias Bias that arises due to the way in which tests and assessments are administered (verbally/non- verbally; computer vs pen and paper etc) Communication problems between interviewers and interviewees can easily occur, especially, when they have different first languages and cultural backgrounds Outcome Bias Tendency to judge decisions by its eventual outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it was made
Method bias Method bias also refers to problems deriving from instrument characteristics (instrument bias) Response procedures (how to respond to a given test) creates method bias stimulus familiarity Predictive-validity bias Occurs when associations with other variables (i.e., validity coefficients) significantly differ between groups or when a test systematically over or underestimates a criterion for a given group
- Cultural Bias Standardised tests are normed based on the knowledge and values of the majority groups, which can create bias against minority groups, including gender, race, community status, and persons with different language backgrounds, socioeconomic status, and culture. Culture bias refers to the cultural loading of test items which makes tests developed in one country/culture inappropriate to use in another country/culture due to cultural differences (e.g. language and customs) which will greatly impact the validity and reliability of the test. Not even that, but it will create significant differences amongst scores between scores from two individuals indicating favourable outcomes for one culture and ‘discriminating’/’being prejudice’ towards another culture. (E.g. utilising a French IQ test and administering it to South Africans). A bias against subjects from certain sections of the population. Using tests which presuppose a knowledge of a particular culture (typically, white middle class). Subjects from groups unfamiliar with this culture might perform badly on such tests, simply because they do not have the appropriate social background to understand the questions Cultural bias will also considers other factors that affect test scores and fairness of administration: socioeconomic status race/ethnicity language and language proficiency gender
cultural customs and culture-specific Behaviours cultural bias can occur in: Interpretation of test results → occurs on two levels: o From the interpreter’s perspective: the interpreter/test administer/examiner is susceptible to making clinical judgments, interpretations, and observations that are influenced by his/her culture or the dominant culture of a given country. This therefore, affects the validity and reliability of the clinical judgments, interpretations, and observations. o From the test-taker’s/patient’s perspective: Cultural and social norms affect how test- takers understand and interpret the wording of test questions. How they make sense of the test items can be influenced by their values, beliefs, experiences, communication patterns, teaching and learning styles, and epistemologies of their cultures and societies o Language: language presents as a big problem when it comes to the interpretation of test-items and test-scores, as well as, when it comes to forming a professional rapport with the test-administrator/test-taker, and the → item interpretation can be affected by test questions written in a language other than the native language of the test taker (how to avoid this issue: consider a non-native English speaker’s language proficiency before deciding whether to test her/him in English or the native language) o How to overcome: To overcome these testing biases, researchers suggest that acculturation should be measured in addition to psychometric tests selection of test and test items → test-users/administers are susceptible to choosing and administering tests/test items that represent the dominant culture → this process is often influenced by their culture as well which is a source of bias. How to avoid Cultural Bias
- Alternative assessments, in contrast to traditional or standardized tests, are considered more culturally fair
- Power tests are considered more culturally fair than speed tests
- Oral instructions are more culturally fair than written instructions,
- non-verbal contents are more culturally fair than verbal contents, and familiar contents to the students are more culturally fair than unfamiliar contents
- Response Bias Response bias can affect both reliability and validity of the measurement. Response bias are
