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Psychology Notes โ Key Concepts
1. Approaches / Perspectives
โ Biological: Brain, neurotransmitters, genetics influence behavior. โ Behavioral: Behavior shaped by rewards/punishments (Skinner, Pavlov). โ Cognitive: Focus on thinking, memory, perception, problem-solving. โ Humanistic: Free will, personal growth, self-actualization (Maslow, Rogers). โ Psychodynamic: Unconscious motives, childhood experiences (Freud). โ Evolutionary: Behavior shaped by survival and reproduction pressures.
2. Research Methods
โ Experiments: Manipulate variables, measure effect, infer causation. โ Correlational studies: Examine relationships, no causation. โ Observational studies: Watch behavior in natural settings. โ Surveys / Interviews: Self-reported data; risk of bias. โ Longitudinal vs. Cross-sectional: Track over time vs. single point.
3. Biological Bases of Behavior
โ Neurons: Basic brain cells; transmit signals via neurotransmitters. โ Neurotransmitters: Dopamine (reward), serotonin (mood), GABA (inhibition), acetylcholine (learning/memory). โ Brain Structures: โ Cerebral cortex: Thinking, perception. โ Amygdala: Emotion, fear. โ Hippocampus: Memory formation. โ Hypothalamus: Hunger, thirst, hormones. โ Cerebellum: Balance, coordination. โ Nervous system: Central (brain/spinal cord) + Peripheral (somatic & autonomic).
4. Learning & Conditioning
โ Classical conditioning (Pavlov): Associate neutral stimulus โ response. โ Operant conditioning (Skinner): Behavior shaped by reinforcement/punishment. โ Observational learning (Bandura): Learn by watching others. โ Schedules of reinforcement: Continuous, fixed/variable ratio, fixed/variable interval.
5. Memory
โ Drive reduction theory โ Incentive theory โ Emotion theories: โ James-Lange: physiological โ emotion โ Cannon-Bard: physiological + emotion simultaneous โ Schachter-Singer: physiological + cognitive label โ emotion โ Stress & coping: Eustress vs. distress, problem-focused vs. emotion-focused coping.
8. Developmental Psychology
โ Piagetโs cognitive stages: Sensorimotor โ Preoperational โ Concrete โ Formal. โ Eriksonโs psychosocial stages: Trust โ autonomy โ identity โ integrity (8 stages). โ Attachment: Secure, avoidant, ambivalent, disorganized (Ainsworth).
9. Personality
โ Psychoanalytic (Freud): Id, ego, superego โ Trait theories: Big Five (OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism) โ Humanistic: Self-concept, self-actualization
โ Social-cognitive: Interaction of traits + environment (Bandura)
10. Psychological Disorders & Therapy
โ Common disorders: Anxiety, depression, bipolar, schizophrenia, OCD, PTSD. โ Therapies: โ Cognitive-behavioral (CBT) โ Psychoanalytic / psychodynamic โ Humanistic / client-centered โ Biological: medication, ECT
11. Social Psychology
โ Conformity & obedience: Asch, Milgram experiments. โ Group behavior: Groupthink, social facilitation, social loafing. โ Attitudes: ABC โ Affect, Behavior, Cognition; can predict behavior. โ Attribution: Internal vs. external causes; fundamental attribution error.
