Psychology Practical File, Study notes of Psychology

Download Psychology Practical File and more Study notes Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Psychological Testing and Assessment Introduction to Psychological Testing Psychological Testing Psychological testing refers to the administration of psychological tests. A psychological test is an "objective and standardized measure of a sample of behavior." The term "sample of behavior" refers to an individual's performance on tasks that have usually been prescribed beforehand. Performance on the items produces a test score. A score on a well- constructed test is believed to reflect a psychological construct such as achievement in a school subject, ability, aptitude, emotional functioning, personality, etc. Differences in test scores are thought to reflect individual differences in the construct the test is supposed to measure. The technical term for the science behind psychological testing is psychometrics. Types of Tests Tests have been developed to measure many different human developments. They are classified as: On the basis of Administration – Group test and individual test On the basis of Behavior – Ability tests [Intelligence tests and achievement tests], Personality Tests [structures personality tests, projective techniques and behavioral analysis] On the basis of context – Verbal tests, non-verbal tests, performance tests Fundamental Concepts of Psychological Testing Proper psychological testing is conducted after vigorous research and development, in contrast to quick web-based or magazine questionnaires. Proper psychological testing consists of the following: Standardization All procedures and steps must be conducted with consistency and under the same environment to achieve the same testing performance from those being tested. Objectivity Scoring such that subjective judgments and biases are minimized, with results for each test taker obtained in the same way. 1. 2. 3. Test Norms The average test score within a large group of people where the performance of one individual can be compared to the results of others by establishing a point of comparison or frame of reference. Reliability Obtaining the same result after multiple testing. It refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the same person when re-examined with the same test with different set of questions at another time. Validity The type of test being administered must measure what it is intended to measure. Types of Validity include: Face Validity A measure of how representative a research project is 'at face value,' and whether it appears to be a good project. Content Validity The estimate of how much a measure represents every single element of a construct. Criterion Validity Assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of abilities. Concurrent validity measures the test against a benchmark test, and high correlation indicates that the test has strong criterion validity. Predictive validity is a measure of how well a test predicts abilities. Construct Validity Defines how well a test or experiment measures up to its claims. A test designed to measure depression must only measure that particular construct, not closely related ideals such as anxiety or stress. Applications of Psychological Testing Detection of Specific Behavior Psychological tests are used to measure and detect the abilities of a person. Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM) Aim To measure the educative component of 'g' as defined in Spearman's Two- factor theory using Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices. Basic Concept Intelligence can be defined in various ways, such as the ability to adjust, learn, and carry out abstract thinking. According to the Oxford dictionary, intelligence is the ability to perceive, learn, understand, and know. Psychologists like Alfred Binet, Wechsler, and Thorndike have proposed different conceptualizations of intelligence, including the ideas of general intelligence (g-factor), primary mental abilities, and multiple intelligences. Assessment of Intelligence Standardized intelligence testing has been widely used to identify individuals with mental retardation, learning disabilities, and to place military recruits in suitable positions. The concept of Mental Age (MA) and Intelligence Quotient (IQ) were introduced to quantify an individual's intellectual development compared to their chronological age. Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) RSPM is a widely used test of abstract intelligence. It consists of 60 multiple-choice items arranged in 5 sets (A, B, C, D, E) of increasing difficulty. The test was developed for research purposes but found widespread practical application due to its language-independence and ease of use. Reliability The test-retest reliability of RSPM has been extensively studied across different age groups and populations, as shown in the table provided. The RSPM also shows moderate to high correlations with other measures of verbal reasoning ability, such as the Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale. Validity The concurrent and predictive validity of RSPM varies depending on factors like age, sex, sample homogeneity, and the relevance of the criterion measure. Correlations between RSPM and other intelligence tests like the Binet and Wechsler scales range from 0.54 to 0.86 for English-speaking children and adolescents. Preliminaries The test administration requires the following materials: RSPM booklet, response sheet, RSPM manual, and a pen/pencil. Precautions include ensuring optimal testing conditions, allowing the subject to move to the next question if stuck, and ensuring all questions are answered. Rapport Formation Rapport is established between the subject and the tester before the test to ensure the subject feels comfortable and at ease while answering the questions. Instructions The subject is informed about the test structure, the progressive difficulty of the items, the need to attempt all items, and the absence of a time limit. Test Administration After the instructions, the subject is asked to fill in the necessary details, and the tester ensures the instructions are clear and understood. Introspective Report/Verbal Report The subject's introspective report on the test experience is recorded, which may include observations about the difficulty level and their feelings towards the end of the test. Scoring The total number of problems solved correctly is scored using the answer key. The percentile score and grade corresponding to the total score are then determined from the manual. Discrepancy Score The difference between the score a person obtains on each set and the expected score for their total score is calculated as the discrepancy score. Interpretation The aim of administering the SPM is to assess the subject's level of mental ability, which is done by measuring their capability for abstract reasoning and pattern recognition. Interpretation Guidelines Grade 1 (Intellectually Superior): Score at the 95th percentile or above, indicating superior reasoning, problem-solving, and learning abilities. • Grade 2 (Above-Average Intellectual Capacity): Score between the 90th and 75th percentiles, showing advanced reasoning skills and a good memory. Grade 3 (Average Intellectual Capacity): Score between the 25th and 75th percentiles, demonstrating the ability to make judgments, form opinions, and exhibit intrinsic motivation to learn. References NCERT Psychology Textbook SPM Manual, Author – J.C. Raven Baron RA 2001/Indian Reprint Psych Michael Egan, Mercury's Web: Some Reflections on Following Nature across Time and Place Maudley's Personality Inventory Aim To assess the introversion-extraversion, emotional stability-neuroticism dimensions of personality of the subject using MPI. Basic Concept According to Allport, personality is the dynamic organizations within the individual that determine its behavior. Theories of Personality Behavioral Theories Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account. Behavioral theorists include B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson. Psychodynamic Theories Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud's psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, and emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences on personality. According to Freud, personality is divided into three parts – Id, ego and super-ego. • • 1. 2. 3. 4. inner world, or extravert, those who gives more attention to other people and his environment. Neuroticism-Emotional Stability: This category is synonymous to 'moodiness versus even-temperedness', where in a neurotic person is inclined to having changing emotions from time to time, while an emotionally stable person tends to maintain a constant mood or emotion. Psychoticism: This dimension refers to the finding it hard to deal with reality. A psychotic person may be considered hostile, manipulative, anti-social and non-empathetic. Methods of Assessing Personality The most commonly used methods for assessing personality are – psychometric tests, self-report measures, projective techniques and behavioral analysis. We are using self-report measures here, which are fairly structured, often based on a theory, that requires subjects to give verbal responses using some kind of rating scale. Examples include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Eysenk Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and 16 Personality Factor (16PF) Questionnaire. Advantages of self-report measures include their use for career guidance, vocational exploration, personal counselling and personality development. Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI) History and Description The Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI) is a questionnaire designed to measure two major dimensions of personality: extraversion and neuroticism. It was developed by the German-born British psychologist H. J. Eysenck, and first published in the journal Rivista di Psicologia in 1956. Later versions of the test were called the Eysenck Personality Inventory and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The MPI is named after the Maudsley Hospital in Denmark Hill, south London, where Eysenck worked, which in turn is named after the English psychiatrist Henry Maudsley (1835–1918) who founded it. Each of the two traits (extraversion and neuroticism) are measured by means of 48 questions. Neuroticism refers to the general emotional stability of a person, their emotional over-responsiveness, and their susceptibility to neurotic breakdown under stress. Extraversion, as opposed to introversion, refers to the outgoing, uninhibited, and sociable proclivities of a person. The two dimensions are conceived of as being quite independent, and all the theoretically possible combinations of scores may be observed. 2. 3. Reliability and Validity Both split-half and Kuder-Richardson reliability coefficients have been calculated on many samples. For the neuroticism scale, these values nearly all lie between 0.85 and 0.90, and for the extraversion scale, they lie between 0.75 and 0.85, with the majority above 0.80. Retest reliabilities are available only on about 100 cases, and are 0.83 and 0.81 respectively. The correlation between the long and short MPI scales are 0.86 and 0.87 respectively for neuroticism and extraversion. The Cattell's neuroticism and introversion scales correlate 0.34 and 0.53 (forms A and B) and 0.65 and 0.67 (forms C and D) with the corresponding MPI scales. Preliminaries The test requires the following materials: - MPI manual - Response sheet - MPI questionnaire form - Pen/pencil Precautions Optimal conditions for testing were ensured before the test began. The time of start and finish were noted. The tester should ensure that the subject is not familiar with the test. The subject should be told that there is no correct answer, and should not skip any item. The subject should be assured of the confidentiality of the test results. Rapport Formation Rapport was established between the subject and the tester prior to the test, so that the subject could feel comfortable and at ease. This would allow the subject to answer the questions in a calm manner, and any doubts could be cleared before starting the test. Instructions The following instructions were given to the subject: "There are some questions regarding the way you feel, behave and react. In each item, there are three answers: 'yes', 'no', and '?'. Don't leave any question, and try to complete the test as soon as possible. There are a total of 48 items in this test, and there are no right or wrong answers. Give the first natural answer as it comes to you. When in doubt, give the best possible answer." Administration After the instructions were given, the subject was asked to fill in the necessary details. The MPI questionnaire was then given to the subject, and was completed in less than 10-15 minutes. The raw score was obtained after the subject completed the test. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Introspective Report The subject's introspective report on the test experience can be included here, as provided by the subject. Scoring The inventory is scored directly from the test forms, using the provided scoring table. Result The subject's raw scores and standard (sten) scores for the Extraversion and Neuroticism dimensions are presented. Based on the interpretation of these scores, the subject's personality characteristics are described. For Extraversion, a sten score of 1-3 indicates introversion, 4-7 indicates ambversion, and 8-10 indicates extraversion. For Neuroticism, a sten score of 1-3 indicates emotional stability, 4-7 indicates average emotional stability, and 8-10 indicates emotional instability. References MPI manual NCERT psychology textbook A Dictionary of Psychology Baron, R. A. C. (2001) Adjustment Inventory for School Students (AISS) Basic Concept The concept of adjustment has originated from the term 'adaptation'. The behavioral process by which humans and other animals maintain a state of equilibrium by various needs is called adjustment. James Denver defines adjustment as the modification to compensate for or meet special conditions. James. C. Coleman says that adjustment is the outcome of the individual's attempts to deal with the stress and meet his needs, also his efforts to maintain harmonious relationships with the environment. Adaptation is the action or process of adapting. Features of adjustment: Varies from culture to culture Subjective in nature Continuous process • • • • • • • Sinha's Comprehensive Anxiety Test (SCAT) Basic Concepts Anxiety is a vague, objectless fear or an uneasy feeling. It is an apprehensive feeling which is typically accompanied by a variety of psychological factors, including increase in heart rate, drying up of mouth, muscular tension and rapid breathing. There are three kinds of anxiety: State Anxiety: It describes the experience of unpleasant feelings when confronted with specific situations, demands or a particular object or event. It arises when the person makes a mental assessment of some type of threat. When the object or situation that is perceived as threatening goes away, the person no longer experiences anxiety. Thus, it's a temporary condition in response to some perceived threat. Trait Anxiety: It arises in response to a perceived threat but it differs in its intensity, duration and the range of situations in which it occurs. It refers to the difference between people in terms of their tendency to experience state anxiety in response to the anticipation of a threat. People with a high level of trait anxiety experience more intense degrees of state anxiety to specific situations than most people do not and experience anxiety toward a broader range of situations or objects than most people. Somatic Anxiety: It is the physical symptoms of anxiety, such as butterflies in the stomach. It is commonly contrasted with cognitive anxiety, which is the mental manifestations of anxiety or the specific thought processes that occur during anxiety, such as concern or worry. Anxiety is observed to manifest itself in the following ways: Health Ambition Social relationships Future Family There are a number of approaches to study anxiety, such as the Psychodynamic Approach, Karen Horney's Basic Anxiety, and the Behavioural Approach. History and Description SCAT is developed by AKP Sinha and LNK Sinha in 1995. The test consists of 90 items which are to be answered in five categories on the basis of score obtained on the extremely high anxiety to extremely low anxiety. Reliability Test retest method - 1 Split half method - 1 1. 2. 3. • • • • • • • Preliminaries Name Age Gender Qualification Place of conduction: Psychology Lab Time Materials Required SCAT manual SCAT questionnaire form Pen/pencil Precautions Optimal conditions for testing were ensured before the test begun. Time of start and finish were noted. The tester should ensure that the subject is not familiar with the test. Subject should be told that there is no correct answer. Subject should not skip any item. Subject should be assured of confidentiality of test results. Rapport Formation Rapport was established between the subject and the tester, prior to the test so that he/she could feel comfortable and at ease. In such a state, she/he should answer the questions in a calm manner and any doubts should be cleared before starting the test. Instructions In each item there are two options, 'yes' or 'no'. Don't leave any question and try to complete as soon as possible. There are no right or wrong answers. Give the first natural answer as it comes to you. When in doubt, give the best possible answer. Read the questions carefully and put a 'x' for whichever option suits you the best. There is no time limit for this test. Administration After the instructions were given, the subject was asked to fill in the demographic details. The subject was asked to check whether he/she left any items unanswered. • • • • • • • • • 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Introspective Report/Verbal Report The test was quite insightful and fun to do. The tester made me feel at ease. Behavioural Report The subject was calm while answering the questions. He/she did not take a long time in completing the test. Scoring Scoring can be done by hand, for any response indicated 'yes' score will be 1 and 0 for 'no'. The sum of all positive responses would be the total score of the subject. Interpretation The aim of administering SCAT was to assess the level of anxiety of the subject. References SCAT manual NCERT textbook, Psychology 1. 2.