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Exam 2 Research Methods Exam with
correct answers
participant - correct answer-to describe a human who volunteers to be subjected to procedures subject - correct answer-to describe a nonhuman subjected to procedures target population - correct answer-larger than the accessible population accessible population - correct answer-smaller than the target population probability sampling - correct answer-have access to the entire target population non-probability sampling - correct answer-sample from accessible population to generalize to target population Convenience sampling - correct answer-(most common) subject pool is the group accessible/available for research study Quota sampling - correct answer-2 forms-- meeting a certain proportion arbitrary or real Simple quota sampling - correct answer-used when know little about target population; ex. 50 female, 50 male Proportionate quota sampling - correct answer-used when the proportions of certain characteristics in a target population are known -- selected knowing characteristic or demographics are proportionately represented in the sample
Simple random sampling - correct answer-all individuals have an equal chance of being selected and are selected using sampling with replacement Stratified random sampling - correct answer-population divided into subgroups or strata and participants selected from each subgroup using simple random sampling, combined into one overall sample Systematic sampling - correct answer-the first participant is selected using simple random sampling and then every nth person is systematically selected until all participants have been selected Cluster sampling - correct answer-subgroups or "clusters" of individuals are identified in a population, and then a portion of clusters that are representative of the population are selected such that all individuals in the selected clusters are included in the sample Difference between Cluster and stratified random sampling - correct answer-Clusters not selected are omitted from sample; people are selected from every subgroup in stratified sampling Sampling error - correct answer-sometimes our sample doesn't accurately reflect the population Standard error of the mean - correct answer-standard deviation of a sampling distribution of sample means; distance that sample mean values can deviate from the value of the population mean How to reduce standard error? - correct answer-increasing sample size Sampling bias (selection bias) - correct answer-the sampling procedures employed favor certain individuals or groups over others Non-response bias - correct answer-a number of participants in one or more groups choose not to respond to a survey or request to participate in a research study What are the categories of research questions? - correct answer-Exploratory Descriptive Relational
What are two aspects of control? - correct answer--manipulation of variable -holding all other variables constant What are the three required elements of control for an experimental research design? - correct answer- randomization manipulation comparison/control Where are non-experimental research designs common? - correct answer-social psychology Can non-experimental research designs demonstrate causation? - correct answer-It cannot demonstrate causality but can illustrate correlations What are some kinds of non-experimental methods? - correct answer-Quantitative -correlational -naturalistic survey -existing data -content analysis -archival research -meta-analysis Qualitative -ethnography -case study Can experimental research designs demonstrate causation? - correct answer-Yes, due to high level of control and high internal validity What is a downside of experimental designs? - correct answer-They could have low external validity
What are some examples of Experimental methods/designs? - correct answer--single-case -within subjects -between subjects -factorial designs Quasi-independent variable - correct answer-any factor in which the levels of the factor are preexisting Can you prove causality with a quasi-independent variable? - correct answer-No What are some examples of quasi-experimental research methods/design? - correct answer-one-group -post-test only design -pre and post- test design time series -basic design -interrupted design -control series design developmental -longitudinal -cross-sectional -cohort- sequential non-equivalent control group -post-test only -pre and post-test design High control and high internal validity is associated with which research design? - correct answer- experimental Low control and low internal validity is associated with which research design? - correct answer-non- experimental
If there is more control in a research design there is less of what kind of validity? - correct answer- external In order to draw a cause/effect relationship a study needs what? - correct answer--randomization (random sampling and random assignment) -manipulation (of variables that operate in an experiment) -comparison/control (a control group) Randomization - correct answer-use of methods for selecting individuals to participate in study, assigning to groups so each has an equal chance of being selected to participate and assigned to group Random sampling - correct answer-sample selected at random Random assignment - correct answer-assign to group at random Independent variable - correct answer-variable manipulated Dependent variable - correct answer-variable that is believed to change in presence of IV Compensatory equalization of treatments - correct answer-researchers often compensate the disadvantaged group in order to meet the ethical standard of beneficence What are some threats to internal validity? - correct answer--history effects -maturation -regression toward the mean -testing effect -instrumentation and measurement -attrition of experimental mortality
heterogenous attrition -environmental factors What are some threats to external validity? - correct answer--population validity -ecological validity -temporal validity -outcome validity -mundane realism/experimental realism history effect - correct answer-(threat to internal validity) unanticipated event co-occurs with treatment/manipulation in study maturation - correct answer-(threat to internal validity) participant's physiological/psychological state changes over time during study due to internal reasons Regression toward the mean - correct answer-(threat to internal validity) change or shift in a participant's performance toward a level or score that is closer to or more typical of true potential or mean ability on some measure after previously scoring unusually high or low on the same measure testing effects - correct answer-(threat to internal validity) improved performance on a test or measure the second time it is taken due to the experience of taking a test Instrumentation and measurement - correct answer-(threat to internal validity) measurement of the dependent variable changes due to an error during the course of a research study Attrition of experimental mortality - correct answer-participant does not show up for a study at scheduled time or fails to complete the study
-quantify observations with various methods -manage the observational period with various sampling methods -minimize bias in observation How can you make unobtrusive observations? - correct answer--remain hidden -habituate participants to the researcher -use a confederate -use indirect measures What are methods to quantify observations in naturalistic observation? - correct answer--interval method -frequency method -duration method -latency method What are sampling methods to manage the naturalistic observational period? - correct answer--time sampling -event sampling -individual sampling Interval method - correct answer-recording whether or not certain behaviors occur in each equal time interval (y/n) Frequency method - correct answer-counting number of times a behavior occurs during fixed period of time Duration method - correct answer-recording amount of time or duration that participants engage in a certain behavior during a fixed period of time
Latency method - correct answer-recording the time or duration between the occurrences of behaviors during a fixed period of time Time sampling - correct answer-making observations during alternating intervals of time Event sampling - correct answer-recording a different behavior in each time interval Individual sampling - correct answer-recording the behaviors of a different participant in each time interval How can you minimize bias in naturalistic observation? - correct answer--observer having no knowledge of purpose of study -observer makes no inferences while observing behavior What are the criteria of trustworthiness? - correct answer--credibility -transferability -dependability -confirmability Credibility - correct answer-(criteria of trustworthiness for qualitative design) truthfulness, if it reflects the realities of the participant so participants themselves agree with the research report Transferability - correct answer-(criteria of trustworthiness for qualitative design) applicability, if it can extend beyond the setting or context of the research Dependability - correct answer-(criteria of trustworthiness for qualitative design) consistency, if results would be similar if similar research were conducted in the same or similar context Confirmability - correct answer-(criteria of trustworthiness for qualitative design)
Selective deposit - correct answer-process by which existing records are selectively recorded or deposited into document files that can be accessed for analysis Selective survival - correct answer-process by which existing records survive or are excluded/decay over time What must you identify in content analysis? - correct answer--unit of analysis -operational definition for content analyzed What is meta-analysis often put in terms of? - correct answer-effect size What is a problem with meta-analysis - correct answer-prone to publication bias What are the types of survey items? - correct answer--open-ended items -partially open-ended items -restricted items What are the rules for writing survey items? - correct answer--keep it simple -avoid double-barreled items -use neutral or unbiased language -minimize the use of negative wording -avoid the response set pitfall -use rating scales consistently -limit the points on a rating scale -label or anchor the rating scale points -minimize survey length What is the ideal versus typical survey response rate? - correct answer-ideal is 75% typical is 50%
What are some important ethical concerns in administering surveys? - correct answer--don't be offensive/stressful -don't coerce -don't harass -protect confidentiality/anonymity Covariance - correct answer-extent to which the values of 2 factors vary together -close data falls to regression line, more covariance Reverse causality - correct answer-probably arises when direction of causality between two factors can be in either direction Restriction of range - correct answer-range of data for one or both correlated factors in a sample is limited or restricted compared to range of data in the population from which the sample was selected What are two ways researchers can make a convenience sample representative of a larger target population of interest? - correct answer--use quota sampling to represent target population's characteristics -use a combined sampling method: convenience and probability sampling eager speaker bias - correct answer-researcher focuses on or speaks mostly with those who are eager to speak with them, while largely ignoring those not good citizen bias - correct answer-researcher assumes they know how members should contribute to the group or culture; members who help are regarded as good citizens stereotype bias - correct answer-tendency for researcher to positively or negatively regard a group or culture in a way that influences how the researcher treats members of the group What is the parallel to credibility? - correct answer-internal validity
