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Research Processes, types, measuring variables, Behavioural measures, measurement errors,, Lecture notes of Research Methodology

York UniversityResearch Methodology

The processes of Research: Research Design, types, measuring variables, Behavioural measures, measurement errors, effective ,measurement

Typology: Lecture notes

2021/2022

Uploaded on 10/24/2023

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RESEARCH PROCESS
●Research Question
●Research Design
●Findings/Answers
●Share/Publish Findings
Research Design
Includes some basic steps
●Choose the right design for your research
○Experimental
■answers “why” questions.
■Used to know if a change in one variable causes a change in another
variable.
■Random assignment to treatment conditions and manipulation of the
independent variable.
○Non- experimental
■answers “what” “why” “how much” “how often” questions.
■Sometimes called correlational research
■Observing things as the naturally occur and record observations as data
○Quasi-experimental
■Involves getting as close as possible to the conditions of a true
experiment when we cannot meet all requirements.
■Manipulating the independent variable but not randomly assigning
people to groups.
■May be impossible to randomly assign people to groups.
■It is unethical to deny potential to someone if there is a good reason to
believe it will be effective and that person will suffer without it.
●Determine the best measures
○Keys to Effective Measurement
○Types of Measurement Error
○Reliability and Validity of Measures
●Recruit participants
○Types of sampling
○Sampling issues
MEASURING VARIABLES
Self-Report
●Directly asking participants to express how they feel or their opinion on a particular
topic.
○Interviews
○Surveys
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RESEARCH PROCESS

● Research Question ● Research Design ● Findings/Answers ● Share/Publish Findings Research Design Includes some basic steps ● Choose the right design for your research ○ Experimental ■ answers “why” questions. ■ Used to know if a change in one variable causes a change in another variable. ■ Random assignment to treatment conditions and manipulation of the independent variable. ○ Non- experimental ■ answers “what” “why” “how much” “how often” questions. ■ Sometimes called correlational research ■ Observing things as the naturally occur and record observations as data ○ Quasi-experimental ■ Involves getting as close as possible to the conditions of a true experiment when we cannot meet all requirements. ■ Manipulating the independent variable but not randomly assigning people to groups. ■ May be impossible to randomly assign people to groups. ■ It is unethical to deny potential to someone if there is a good reason to believe it will be effective and that person will suffer without it. ● Determine the best measures ○ Keys to Effective Measurement ○ Types of Measurement Error ○ Reliability and Validity of Measures ● Recruit participants ○ Types of sampling ○ Sampling issues MEASURING VARIABLES Self-Report ● Directly asking participants to express how they feel or their opinion on a particular topic. ○ Interviews ○ Surveys

○ Questionnaires ● ADVANTAGES ○ Cheap and easy to administer. ○ First-hand experience from participants. ● DISADVANTAGES ○ Social desirability concerns ○ Potential demand characteristics ○ Possible retrospective bias Behavioural Measures ● Assesses the actions a person takes, how the person responds to a request, the person’s decisions, or simply “actual behaviour” ○ Behavioural Trace ○ Behavioural Observation ○ Behavioural Choices ● ADVANTAGES ○ Provides information about what people actually do ○ More engaging for participants ○ Findings may be more relatable to the general population ● DISADVANTAGES ○ Expensive and time consuming. ○ Demand characteristics. ○ Participants reactivity. MEASUREMENT ERRORS Raw Score= True Score + Error ● Raw score= Actual score ● True score= What your score would be on a perfect, free of external factors ● Error= External influences that cause raw score to deviate from the true score. ● Random Error: Variation from the measure’s true score due to unsystematic factors ○ Occurs in unpredictable ways that affect results ○ Uses stats to identify consistent patterns in measurements despite differences due to random error ○ Assumed that these errors cancel themselves out over the long run. ● Systematic error: Error that consistently pushes scores in a given direction aka bias ○ Relies on good research practices to eliminate bias ○ Stats cannot address bias

PROBABILITY SAMPLING

● Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected into a sample. ● Picking on member from the population should not increase or decrease the chances of picking any other member ● Simple random sampling: ○ Each member of the population has the same probability for selection ● Stratified sampling: ○ Used to make the sample more representative of the population ● Cluster random sampling: ○ Total population divided by into groups is called cluster ○ Sample includes all participants from the selected cluster NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING ● It is sometimes not feasible to build a sample using probability sampling ○ Not everyone has a chance of being selected, thereby causing bias in the sample ○ Makes it difficult to apply results from study to the general population ● Convenience sampling ○ Nonrandomly recruiting participants from a known, readily available population ● Quota sampling ○ Researchers decide ahead of time what characteristics they want their sample to represent (70% male) ● Purposive Sampling ○ Researches pick sample based on predetermined qualities (Pro basketball players) ● Snowball Sampling ○ Existing participants recruit future participants from their acquaintances. SAMPLING BIAS ● Conclusions apply only to our sample and are not generalizable to the full population in sampling bias ● Non-response bias: Potential systematic differences between participants and non-participants ○ Volunteer subject problem ○ College sophomore problem (problem with generalisation)

Research Question What is the nature of a serial killer’s thought patterns? ● Qualitative research: A variety of methods that focus on obtaining an in-depth account of participants’ perspectives on their own worlds and experiences of events ○ Primary goal is to look at an individual in a specific context. ○ Triangulation: Strategy that uses multiple techniques or samples to assess the same information and provide a more comprehensive examination ○ Reflexivity: Practice where researcher monitors and records their role in the data collection on a continuous basis to assess the researchers influence ○ Bottom-Up Approach: ■ Gather information ■ Explore themes and patterns ■ Formulate Theory ○ Top-Down Approach ■ Make a theory ■ Gather Information ■ Confirm or Reject Original Prediction ○ Situated analysis: Approach where the researcher examines a topic while it is embedded within its naturally occurring context ○ Holistic analysis: Researcher examines how numerous properties contribute to patterns within the larger and more complex system DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES ● Action Research: A research design that explicitly involves participants in the study and tries to change some aspects of the research’s focus ● Ethnography: A design that uses detailed and typically long-term observations or interactions to situate a phenomenon in the proper cultural context of those being studied. ● Narrative Analysis: An examination of first-person narrative of one’s life that the researcher analyses from the perspective of the teller. SOURCES OF SELF-REPORTED DATA ● Archival: Data collected in naturally occurring settings, such as newspapers, health records, or social media. ● Focus group: Data collected through participants discussing a topic ● Interview: Data collected through conversations where researchers get information from the participants. ● Case study: Data collected through detailed description of a specific group studied over a period of time that contains information from a variety of sources. ○ Collective : comparison of different studies ○ Descriptive : Answers how questions

CONDUCTING AN INTERVIEW

  • General procedure for conducting an interview:
    1. State the purpose
    2. Identify potential participants
      • Unit of analysis: the type of data we want to learn about (eg. One individual, several individuals, a group, a town, a phenomenon, etc.)
    3. Determine the questions to ask
    4. Determine the question order
  • Before conducting the interview, consider any ethical implications • Prisoners are a protected group
  • Interviewer bias: Any way that the interviewer influences the participant’s responses (eg. through leading questions) Qualities of a good interviewer:
    1. Make sure you are fully knowledgeable about the interviewee.
    2. You should practice so you can ask your questions clearly, without sounding rushed or nervous.
    3. A good interviewer is attentive and focused, displays sensitivity and tolerance, segues appropriately between topics, and is highly organised. How to prepare:
    4. Interview schedule/ agenda: A protocol that guides the interviews.
    5. Determine which questions to ask
    6. Plan an order for the questions Writing the Results
  • The findings must be translated into a format that will benefit others the most
  • Psychology – APA style • In general: ● Identify several central themes that reoccur throughout the interview ● Include examples from the interview that illustrate the themes ● Present qualitative information in the text of the research report but also include tables and figures Writing the Discussion
  • Researcher puts the results into context by showing how they compare to previous researcher
  • Offers thoughts on why the findings came about
  • Discusses potential issues and limitations with the study