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BACKGROUND ON RESEARCH
Introduction
Man’s innumerable researches bring forth progress and development. As a thinking being, man never ceases to seek for the whys and wherefores of things around him. His being national pushes him to think, invent, innovate, search and arrive at answers to his problems. To satisfy his needs, to improve his life and to make accurate decisions, he needs to undertake research. Research, therefore, is man’s tool for survival. No new ideas will be learned if no new researches come at hand. No possible inventions will be out for use if not for research. The complex nature of research demands thorough study on the different aspects of the subject or topic at hand. What is Research? Many experts defined research from different perspectives, according to their own interests and fields of expertise. Although their definitions are focused on their own fields of specialization, all have one basic meaning which is applied in any field of study. Research is the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. (Wiki Sym 2014). Adanza, Bermudo, Rasonable (2009) simply defines research as looking for answers to a query using the most logical and valid methods. According to Baac (2008), research is the process by which the collection and analysis of data to generate a theory or test a theory is done systematically. Calmorin (2007) defines research as the scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that link an individual’s speculation with reality. Dejillas (2000) defines research as a systematic and scientific way of investigating a problem with the view of understanding it and finding solutions to it. According to Mugo (2000), research is a careful or diligent search, studious inquiry or examination especially investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws. It can also be the collection of information about a particular subject.
In summary, research is a process of seeking for new knowledge of theories, of testing the accuracy of existing theory, applying established facts or knowledge in generating new products or ideas in solving problems. Relevance and Purpose of Research To survive the continuous change in the environment, research has become a very essential tool. Through research, new truths are continuously unveiled which lead to the proliferation of knowledge. Consequently, such tool results to development and progress. In the educational system, the role of research is central in improving its system and processes. The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) has mandated the conduct of research in various learning institutions. Several colleges and universities recognize the need to improve their research culture as this is necessary in pushing forward the frontiers of knowledge. The CHED, through its National Higher Education Research Agenda (NHERA), has identified research thrusts that are in line with the national goals. In line with the mandate, and with the desire to improve the standard of education and the quality of services it offers, SPUP has been conducting researches that are centered on the four (4) thrusts of the CHED, namely: Quality and Excellence Relevance and Responsiveness Access and Equity Efficiency and Effectiveness The University, through its Research and Publications Office (RPO), has developed the SPUP RESEARCH AGENDA which serves as a framework for all its research endeavors. Researches to be conducted, implemented and disseminated by the University are anchored on the University Research Agenda. Such Agenda is continuously updated to ensure its responsiveness to the needs of the university, as well as the needs of the local, national and global community.
Sources of Problems Calmorin (2007) gave the following as some sources of a good problem: Classroom-related Work experiences Theories which need empirical support Technology Science Off-shoots / recommendations of other researches Instructional programs Management practices of organizations Characteristics of a Good Problem Adanza, Bermudo, Rasonabe (2009) gave the following characteristics of a good problem: It should be of interest to the researcher himself. It should have practical value to the researcher, the school, and the community. It is a current novel issue. More importantly, it can be finished within the allotted time, depending on the course requirement. It should not carry moral or legal impediment, nor should it be controversial. The data are available. The variables are clear, separable, and updated. It shall incur expenses affordable to the researcher. Kinds of Research There are three kinds of research according to Adanza, Bermudo, Rasonabe (2009): Basic Research deals with the processes of objects and things, or information about different topics with no concern for a direct pay-off.
Applied Research probes into the unknown using directly the results to a current problem. Empirical Research is more specific than basic research, but implies its nature from the use of data, whether quantitative or qualitative. Classification of Research Evaluation Research****. This is concerned with the application of theories and facts in evaluating the relative worth of two or more possible alternatives or decisions. Research and Development****. This research is concerned with the application of existing theories or body of knowledge in developing new products, systems or procedures. Action Research. This is concerned with the application of existing theories in the conceptualization of a possible alternative solution to an existing problem situation. Library Research. Research is conducted in the library. Data or information needed to solve the research problems are available in the library. Field Study. Research is conducted in the natural setting. Laboratory Research. Research is conducted in artificial or controlled conditions by isolating the study. How to Formulate the Research Title To formulate the research title, Calmorin (2007) suggested the following: It should not be long and should not be more than 20 words. It should include the variables (independent and dependent) and the method of analysis. It should give insight virtually on what the research is all about. It should serve as a reference for the whole research report which others can use. It should enable one to claim the paper as his own, and helps other researchers to refer to one’s work as they survey some theories themselves. The following words should not be a part of the title since all the researches are studies, analysis of variable, and an investigation, like: “A Study of,” “An Analysis of,” or “An Investigation of.”
the variables. It has a control group, the subjects have been randomly assigned between the groups, and the researcher only tests one effect at a time. Example: Bronchodilating Effect of Young Indian Mango Leaves’ Extract Historical Research. This research involves understanding, studying, and explaining past events. Its purpose is to arrive at some conclusions concerning past occurrences that may help to anticipate or explain present or future events. Example: Politico-Historical Roots of the Chronic Mindanao Conflict Case Study. Case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-life context. A case study is an intensive analysis of an individual unit (e.g., a person, group, or event) stressing developmental factors in relation to context. Example: Survival Strategies of the Victims of Typhoon Ondoy Ethnography. An ethnographic study is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena which reflect the knowledge and system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group. Example: Beliefs and Practices of Aetas in Peñablanca, Cagayan Discourse Analysis. This research design enables the researcher to reveal the hidden motivations behind a text or behind the choice of a particular method of research to interpret that text. Discourse analysis is generally used in analyzing discourse, writing, conversation, communicative event, etc.. Example: Emerging Values Expressed in the Paulinian Poetry
General Text Format
Language
The thesis should be written in English. Exceptions to this may be made when
discipline specific guidelines permit (for example, MAED- Filipino research studies). Other exceptions are short phrases in Latin or French typically used in English, such as ‘vis-a-vis’ which should be written in italics. A thesis is an academic work and needs to be written formally, hence, must not use informal language. Sentences must be in passive voice using the third person. Examples: “This work demonstrates that…”, or “Reyes’ work illustrates…” Research proposals should be written in the future tense. The final research report should be in the past tense.
Structure of Research Paper
Research reports for undergraduate, post-graduate, faculty, and staff should follow the following structure: Preliminary Parts Thesis Proposal Thesis Report Title Page √ √ Abstract or Executive Summary √ Acknowledgments √ Dedications √ Table of Contents √ √ List of Figures, Tables or Illustrations √ Body of the Thesis Thesis Proposal Thesis Report Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction √ √ Review of Related Literature and Studies √ √ Conceptual/Theoretical Framework √ √ Scope and Delimitation √ √ Significance of the Study √ √
Chapters should start on a new page, but sections and subsections should not. Typed and word-processed manuscripts should be justified. Do not hyphenate words at the end of the sentence; end each line of text with a complete word. In general, words and phrases are not emphasized through the use of bold print, underlining, italic, single/double quotation marks, or all uppercase characters. Instead, writers must construct sentences so that emphasis is understood.
Citations
Rules Each quotation is accompanied by a parenthetical citation that includes the name(s) of the authors(s), the publication date, and the page(s) where the quotation is located. Follow the “5-word” rule: If 5 or more words from the source are used and in the same order in your paper, the rules for quoting need to be followed. All paraphrased works must also be cited parenthetically within the body of the paper with one exception: If summarizing/critiquing a single article, paraphrasing does not have to be referred. Always paraphrase accurately. Citations for paraphrased works require the surnames of the authors and date. When a work has multiple authors, the citation should link the last author’s name with the others using the ampersand symbol (&) if the citation is in parenthesis; otherwise, the work “and” is used. Use only the source that you have directly accessed. Obtain permission to quote when necessary. APA copyrighted works require written permission before using a total of over 500 words from that work. Quotations from a single source should be limited to fewer than 500 words. A complete quotation of less than 40 words should be incorporated within the paper’s text, begun and ended with double quotation (“ ”) marks, and must be followed by a parenthetical reference citing the author, date of publication, and the page where the quotation is printed.
Quotations of 40 or more words must be: Indented (5 spaces from the left margin) Without quotation marks Followed by a parenthetical reference that cites the page(s) where the quoted materials are located in the original work Quotations that cite or quote another copyrighted work should be avoided. The use of ellipsis (…..) points are not recommended. These are used when one omits part of an original source (when not quoting an entire sentence). Quotations out of context can be misinterpreted. Footnotes are not recommended. Sample Citations Typical In-Text Citation (Sample 1) Although many behavioral scientists feel that punishment should never be used, Deitz and Hummel (2000) offer two situations where it may be ethical to use the procedure. (Sample 2) There are two situations where punishment procedures may be warranted: When all other deceleration methods have failed or when the behavior is a clear procedure (Hummel, 2000). In-Text Citation for Short Direct Quotation (Sample 1) Using punishment instead of other procedures to decelerate behavior is problematic. “Punishment should be reserved only to very serious misbehaviors and should be used only when other alternatives have been exhausted” (Deitz & Hummel, 2000, p. 81). (Sample 2) Using punishment to decelerate behavior is problematic. According to Deitz & Hummel (2000), “Punishment should be reserved only to very serious misbehaviors and should be used only when other alternatives have been exhausted” (p. 81).
An Anonymous Book: Environmental resource handbook, (2001). Millerton, NY: Grey House. In-text reference : (Environmental Resource Handbook, 2001) Articles ion Reference Books (unsigned and signed): Greenhouse effect. (2005). American heritage science dictionary. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. In-text reference : (Greenhouse effect, 2005) Schneider, S. H. (2000). Greenhouse effect. World book encyclopedia (Millennium ed. Vol.8, pp. 382-383). Chicago, IL: World Book. In-text reference : (Schneider, 2000) Magazine Articles: Allen, L. (2004), August). Will Tuvalu disappear beneath the sea? (Global warming threatens to swamp a small island nation. Smithsonian, 35(5), 44-52. In-text reference : (Allen, 2004) Begley, S. & Murr, A. (2007), July 2). Which of these is not causing global warning? A. Sport utility vehicles; B. Rice fields; C. Increased solar output. Newsweek, 150(2), 48-50. In-text reference: (Begley, 2007) Newspaper Articles (unsigned and signed): College officials agree to cut greenhouse gases. (2007), June 13). Albany Times Union, p. A4. In-text reference: ( “College Officials”, 2007) Miller-Rushing, A. J., Primack, R. B., Primack, D. , & Mukunda, S. (2006). Photographs and herbarium specimens as tools to document phonological changes in response to global warming. American Journal of Botany, 93, 1667-1674. In-text reference : (Miller-rushing, Primack, Primack, & Mukunda, 2006)
Journal Articles when each issue begins with p. 1. Bogdonoff, S. & Rubin, J. (2007). The regional greenhouse gas initiative: Taking action in Main. Environment, 49 (2), 9-16. In-text reference: (Bogdonoff & Rubin, 2007) Journal Article from a Library Subscription Service Database with a DOI (digital object identifier): Mora, C., & Maya, M. F. (2006). Effect of a the rate of temperature of the dynamic method on the heat tolerance of fishes. Journal of Thermal Biology, 31, 337-341. doi:10.101b/ jherbio. 2006.01. In-text reference: (Mora & Maya, 2006) Website: United Stats Environmental Protection Agency. (2007, May 4). Climate Change. Retrieved from the Environmental Protection Agency website: http//www.epa.gov/climate change In-text reference : United States Environment, 2007) Gelspan, R. (2007). The Heat Is Online. Lake Oswego, OR: Green House Network. Retrieved from The Heat Is Online website: http://www.heatisonline.org In-text reference: (Gelspan, 2007)
Abstract or Executive Summary. The abstract is the summary of the contents of a thesis. It provides enough information for the reader to learn the purpose and results of the research that is being reported and does so in concise and forthright fashion. It should be self-contained. The length of the abstract varies from 350 – 600 words. This is written in the IMRAD (Introduction, Methodology, Results and Discussion) format. (See Samples of Abstract or Executive Summary at the end of this document).
Acknowledgment. This is an optional page acknowledging people who provided the author
with assistance in the thesis project, notably, but not only the thesis supervisor. Table of Contents. The thesis must have a table of contents page listing chapter headings, section headings and sub-headings, Appendices and references as well as their corresponding page number. (See the Sample of Table of Contents at the end of this document). List of Figures, Tables or Illustrations. If appropriate, a separate list of figures, tables, or illustrations should be included on a separate page immediately following the table of contents. (See the Sample of List of Figures, Tables or Illustrations at the end of this document). Abbreviations (optional). If the thesis makes use of a large number of abbreviations that may be unfamiliar to a reader, providing a list of them can act as a useful guide. However, if there are few abbreviations used in the thesis, this may be included in the definition of terms.
Body of the Thesis / Dissertation
Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter describes the background of the study, its conceptual underpinnings, its research objectives, its benefits and defined bounds. The components included in this chapter are: Introduction. The thesis should normally begin with a general introduction presenting an overview of what it is about and situating it in the existing research. The introduction should show why the topic selected is worth investigating and why it is of significance in the field. This will normally be done with reference to existing research, identifying areas that have not been explored, need to be explored further, or where new research findings justify a reconsideration of established knowledge. The final section of the introduction should briefly outline the structure of the body of the thesis. Where appropriate, this can be linked to and follow logically from the description of the methodology.
Review of Related Literature. The purpose of the literature review is to summarize, evaluate and where appropriate compare those main developments and current debates in the field which are specifically relevant to the research area, according to the guiding principle embodied in the thesis statement. In effect, the literature review shows that the writer is familiar with the field and simultaneously lays the ground for subsequent analysis or presentation and discussion of empirical data, as appropriate. Rather than simply summarizing other authors’ work, the chapter should make clear the writer’s position in relation to the issues raised. The literature review should have a logical structure (thematic). Like any other chapter, a literature review chapter should have its own introduction and conclusions. Conceptual/Theoretical Framework. Explains in narrative form, the main dimensions to be studied – the key factors or variables – and the presumed relationships among them. Theoretical or conceptual scheme is developed from the review of related literature and is usually presented in a diagram. Conceptual or theoretical framework is not necessary in qualitative research. Getting the framework in a single diagram forces the researcher to find the general constructs that hold the phenomena, to map relationships, to divide the variables that conceptually or functionally distinct, and to work with all the information at once. General constructs come from theories and previous empirical research. As a general rule, the more parsimonious the framework, the better it is. The theoretical framework presents an integrated set of propositions espoused by an individual or group of individuals, which has generally been recognized. This is considered as the foundation and structure upon which the entire research study is developed. It explains the theory/theories and its relation with the existing problem. Also, it is in this section that the different variables of the study are set down. The relationship of all the variables are defined and explained. Moreover, this section “describes the nature, causes and dynamics of the problem being investigated (Dejillas, 2000). A conceptual framework is tentative theoretical scheme that the researcher has developed for his/her research problem. It is introduced by a discussion of the theoretical orientation used by the researcher. The direction and operationalization of the theoretical framework is described under the conceptual framework. Statement of the Problem. This portion should state the problem clearly as a main problem, written either as a declarative statement or as a question broken down to specific sub- problems, usually also written in the form of questions. Major Problem Sub-Problem Hypothesis. A hypothesis is a prediction of the possible outcome of a study, a suggested answer to a problem that is stated in declarative form (Salkind, 2000). Most of the time, in a qualitative research, a simple conceptual hypothesis is formulated. Qualitative research does not test hypothesis. However, for a quantitative research, where inferential statistics, such as t-
Instrumentation. It describes each of the instruments used for data gathering in terms of process of preparation, information about administration, scoring, and interpretation, evidences of reliability and validity. Data Gathering Procedure. This portion discusses in detail the procedures, techniques, and strategies employed in data gathering. Detailed discussion is required to enable another researcher to replicate the method. Data Analysis. It identifies the statistical designs used to analyze data including level of significance employed and mode of analysis. It specifies which variables were used in the analysis. Statistical formulas should be included in the discussion. For complex statistical designs (e.g. regression analysis, factorial analysis, etc.), there is a need to include a step-by- step procedure in using them. Chapter 3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This reports the findings objectively. Modes of presentation include: Tabular Graphical Qualitative The presentation can be done by first, briefly stating the main results or findings. Then, report the data in sufficient detail to justify the conclusions. Mention all relevant results including those that run counter to the hypothesis. Do not include individual scores or raw data, with the exception of single-case studies or illustrative samples. Tables provide exact values and can efficiently illustrate main effects, figures of professional quality attributes of a test, the degrees of freedom, the probability level, and the direction of the effect. Be sure to include descriptive statistics (e.g. mean); where means are reported, always include an associated measure of variability, such as standard deviations, variances, or mean square errors. Commonly used alpha levels are .05 and .01. Before you begin to report specific results, you should routinely state the particular alpha level you selected for the statistical tests you conducted. The salient findings must follow discussions that would contain interpretations or implications, especially with respect to the original hypothesis. In here, the researcher is free to examine, interpret, and qualify the results, as well as draw inferences from them.
Theoretical consequences of the results and validity of the conclusions must be emphasized. The literature review may again be cited to explain the results. Procedural limitations are also discussed. Chapter 4 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary of Findings. Briefly summarize the findings of the study; wording of the summary and abstract should not be exactly the same; summary is usually longer than the abstract presented at the beginning of the report. Conclusions. General statements or conclusions should be logically inferred from the results. Generalizations should be clearly delimited. Conclusions may either support or not support the hypotheses. Recommendations. It includes suggestions, which may involve change in policies, practices, etc.
FINAL PARTS
APPENDICES. Appendices may be needed for formulae, maps, diagrams, interview protocols, survey questionnaires, checklists , letters , computer printouts of statistical tests, supplementary materials. Or any similar data that are not contained in the body of the thesis. These should be provided after the conclusion in the logical order they are mentioned in the main body. A list of appendices should be drawn up, each being given a consecutive letter, and placed in the table of contents. If there are several appendices each should receive a title. REFERENCES. A list of the sources used in the thesis must be supplied which complies the APA style guidelines. This list should include only those sources cited in the thesis. The list of references is always started on a new page. The word “References” should be centered on top of the page. All sources cited in the manuscript must be listed in alphabetical order in the reference list. (References are not bibliographies. Bibliographies refer the interested reader to additional sources for further reading that were not specifically cited in the manuscript, and are not used in the APA-style manuscript).
