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Resources and Human Interaction - Notes
Resources and Development
Defining Resources
Resource refers to everything available in the environment that can be used to satisfy human needs, provided it is:
Technologically accessible Economically feasible Culturally acceptable
Resources are not free gifts of nature. Resources are a function of human activities. Human beings themselves are essential components of resources — they transform material available in the environment into resources and use them.
The Interdependent Relationship
Nature, Technology, and Institutions
Human beings interact with nature through technology and create institutions to accelerate their economic development. The process of transforming things available in the environment involves an interactive relationship between these three elements.
> Key takeaway: Resources can contribute to development only when accompanied by appropriate technological development and institutional changes.
Classification of Resources
Resources can be classified in four main ways:
On the Basis of Origin: Biotic and Abiotic
Biotic resources: obtained from living organisms (forests, wildlife, fisheries) Abiotic resources: non-living physical materials (minerals, rocks, metals)
On the Basis of Exhaustibility: Renewable and Non-Renewable
Renewable resources: can be replenished through natural processes
- Continuous or flow resources: wind, water, solar energy
- Biological resources: natural vegetation, forests, wildlife
Non-renewable resources: finite and exhaustible
Resources and Human Interaction
- Recyclable resources: metals (can be reprocessed)
- Non-recyclable resources: fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas)
On the Basis of Ownership
Individual resources: privately owned Community resources: accessible to all members of a community National resources: within the jurisdiction of a country International resources: governed by international bodies
On the Basis of Status of Development
Potential resources: available but not yet fully utilized Developed resources: surveyed and currently in use Stock resources: available but lacking technology to utilize them Reserve resources: part of stock that can be used in the future with current technology
Development of Resources: Problems
Resources are vital for human survival and maintaining quality of life. However, the belief that resources were free gifts of nature led to indiscriminate use, creating major problems:
Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals Accumulation of resources in few hands, dividing society into haves and have-nots Global ecological crises such as pollution and land degradation
> An equitable distribution of resources has become essential for sustained quality of life and global peace.
Sustainable Development
Definition
Sustainable economic development means development should take place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not compromise the needs of future generations.
Key Global Events
Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992
More than 100 heads of state attended the International Earth Summit Convened to address urgent problems of environmental protection and socio-economic development Leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological Diversity The Rio Convention endorsed global Forest Principles
Agenda 21
Conservation of Resources
Irrational consumption and over-utilization of resources may lead to socio-economic and environmental problems.
> Gandhiji's view: "There is enough for everybody's need and not for anybody's greed."
Gandhiji identified greedy and selfish individuals and the exploitative nature of modern technology as the root cause of resource depletion. He was against mass production and wanted to replace it with production by the masses.
Land Resources
Land is a natural resource of utmost importance — it supports natural vegetation, wildlife, human life, economic activities, transport, and communication systems. However, land is an asset of finite magnitude, requiring careful planning.
India's Land Under Relief Features
| Relief Feature | Percentage | Significance |
| -------------- | ---------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |
| Plains | 43% | Provide facilities for agriculture and industry |
| Mountains | 30% | Ensure perennial flow of rivers, provide tourism and ecological benefits |
| Plateaus | 27% | Possess rich reserves of minerals, fossil fuels, and forests |
Land Utilization Purposes
Forests Land not available for cultivation:
- Barren and waste land
- Land put to non-agricultural uses (buildings, roads, factories)
Other uncultivated land (excluding fallow land):
- Permanent pastures and grazing land
- Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves
- Culturable waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years)
Fallow lands:
- Current fallow (left without cultivation for one year or less)
- Other than current fallow (left uncultivated for 1 to 5 agricultural years)
Net sown area: physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested
- Gross cropped area: area sown more than once in an agricultural year plus net sown area
Land Use Pattern in India
Land use is determined by both physical factors (topography, climate, soil types) and human factors (population density, technological capability, culture and traditions).
Key observations (1960-61 to 2019-20):
Net sown area changed marginally (45.26% to 45.64%) Area under non-agricultural uses increased noticeably (12.01% to 23.41%) Barren and unculturable waste land decreased (18.11% to 9.06%) Current fallow decreased (6.23% to 3.90%) Forest area showed minimal increase (4.71% to 5.40%)
Note: Total geographical area of India is 3.28 million sq km, but land use data is available for only 93% of this area.
Forest Cover
Forest area in India is far lower than the desired 33% of geographical area (National Forest Policy, 1952) needed for maintaining ecological balance. Millions of people living on the fringes of forests depend on them for their livelihood.
State-wise Variation in Net Sown Area
Over 80%: Punjab, Haryana Less than 10%: Arunachal Pradesh, Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Land Degradation and Conservation Measures
Human activities have brought about degradation of land and aggravated natural forces that damage land.
Causes of Land Degradation
Mining: Abandoned mining sites leave deep scars and over-burdening; deforestation due to mining (Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha) Overgrazing: Major reason in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra Over-irrigation: Leads to water logging and salinity (Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh) Mineral processing: Grinding limestone for cement, calcite and soapstone for ceramics generates dust that retards water infiltration Industrial effluents: Becoming a major pollution source in many parts of the country Deforestation, quarrying: Additional human activities contributing to land degradation
Conservation Measures
Afforestation and proper management of grazing
Coarser in upper reaches of river valleys (piedmont plains) Very fertile overall, containing adequate potash, phosphoric acid, and lime Ideal for sugarcane, paddy, wheat, and other cereal and pulse crops
Black Soil (Regur Soil)
Distribution: Typical of the Deccan trap (basalt) region, covering plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and extending along Godavari and Krishna valleys. Characteristics:
Black in colour Ideal for growing cotton — also known as black cotton soil Made up of extremely fine clay particles High capacity to hold moisture Rich in soil nutrients like calcium carbonate, magnesium, and potash Generally poor in phosphoric contents Develop deep cracks during hot weather, helping proper aeration Sticky when wet and difficult to work unless tilled immediately after the first shower
Red and Yellow Soils
Distribution: Develop on crystalline igneous rocks in low rainfall areas of eastern and southern Deccan plateau. Also found in Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain, and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats. Characteristics:
Reddish colour due to diffusion of iron Yellow when iron occurs in hydrated form
Laterite Soil
Derivation: From Latin word later meaning brick. Distribution: Southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, parts of West Bengal, and North-east regions. Characteristics:
Develops under tropical and subtropical climate with alternate wet and dry seasons Result of intense leaching due to heavy rain Deep and mostly deficient in plant nutrients Generally humus poor in semi-arid environments Prone to erosion and degradation due to position on landscape After adopting soil conservation techniques, useful for growing tea and coffee Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala suitable for cashew nut
Arid Soils
Distribution: Western Rajasthan and dry regions. Characteristics:
Range from red to brown in colour Sandy in texture, saline in nature
High salt content — common salt obtained by evaporating water Lacks humus and moisture due to high temperature and faster evaporation Lower horizons occupied by Kankar due to increasing calcium content Kankar layers restrict infiltration of water Become cultivable after proper irrigation
Forest Soils
Distribution: Hilly and mountainous areas with sufficient rainfall. Characteristics:
Texture varies according to mountain environment Loamy and silty in valley sides Coarse grained in upper slopes In snow-covered areas of Himalayas, soils experience denudation and are acidic with low humus content Soils in lower valleys, river terraces, and alluvial fans are fertile
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation
Soil Erosion
The denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down is described as soil erosion. Soil formation and erosion go on simultaneously — normally there is a balance between the two. This balance is disturbed by:
Human activities: deforestation, overgrazing, construction, mining Natural forces: wind, glacier, water
Types of Soil Erosion
Gully erosion: Running water cuts through clayey soils, making deep channels — known as bad land; in the Chambal basin these are called ravines Sheet erosion: Water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope, washing away the topsoil Wind erosion: Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land Defective farming methods: Ploughing up and down the slope forms channels for quick water flow
Soil Conservation Methods
Contour ploughing: Ploughing along contour lines to decelerate water flow down slopes Terrace cultivation: Cutting steps on slopes to restrict erosion; well developed in Western and Central Himalayas
Strip cropping: Dividing large fields into strips, with strips of grass left between crops to break wind force Shelter belts: Planting lines of trees to create shelter; contributed significantly to stabilizing sand dunes and the desert in western India
