Reviewer for Science | Study notes Earth science

Definitions of Science

● An organized body of knowledge gathered over a long

period of time to explain the world

we live in.

● Knowledge or a system covering general truths or the

operation of general laws especially

as obtained and tested through scientific method.

Scientific Method

1. Identifying the problem (Questioning)

2. Gathering Preliminary data

3. Formulating a hypothesis*

4. Testing of the hypothesis

5. Analysis and Interpretation of data

6. Drawing of Conclusion

Independent Variable – variable changed by the

experimenter

Dependent Variable – variable that responds to the

variable that is changed in the experiment.

Experimental group – groups that receive treatment.

Control group – opposite of Experimental.

● hypothesis – it is what we think the answer to the

question is and it should stated in terms

of the variables defined.

Laws and Theories

*Scientific law – a description of a natural occurrence

that has been observed many times.

*Scientific theory – a reasonable explanation of a

scientific law. It is derived from a hypothesis

that has been supported by repeated testing.

*Model – helps visualize occurrences and objects that

cannot be observed directly.

Note: Scientific laws and theories cannot be proven

absolutely. They are maintained as all

observations support them.

Measurements

● In science, the metric system is used in all

measurements for its convenience and

simplicity.

● The International System of Units (SI) uses the seven

base quantities and units given

below:

Physical Quantity Unit Name (symbol)

Mass Kilogram, kg

Length Meter, m

Time Second, s

Amount of Substance Mole, mol

Temperature Kelvin, K

Electric current Ampere, A

Luminous intensity Candela, cd

Major Regions of the Earth

1. Lithosphere – the solid part and the largest portion of

the earth

2. Hydrosphere – the liquid part. It covers about 71% of

the earth’s surface

3. Atmosphere – the gaseous portion that envelops the

earth

4. Biosphere – the region where living things are found.

Rocks and Minerals

Everywhere you look, you find rocks of different shapes

and sizes. What is important to

remember about rocks is the way they were formed. The

varying conditions for the rock formation

influence the characteristics that each rock develops,

● Igneous rocks – formed from hardened magma and

lava.

e.g. Rhyolite, Granite, Basalt, etc.

● Sedimentary rocks – form from deposited fragments or

particles of other rocks that have

been weathered and eroded.

e.g. limestone, conglomerate, dolomite, shale

● Metamorphic rocks – rocks that have undergone

changes due to heat and pressure

e.g. marble (from limestone), slate(from shale)

* Rocks are made up of minerals which are either

elements or compounds.

Weathering is a term for all processes which combine to

cause the disintegration and chemical

alteration of rocks at or near earth surface.

Erosion includes all the process of loosening, removal,

and transportation which tend to wear

away the earth’s surface.

Lithification is the conversion of unconsolidated sediment

into solid rock.

Weather and Climate

Meteorology – the study of the earth’s atmosphere,

weather and climate

Weather – the daily condition of the earth’s atmosphere

Climate – general conditions of temperature and

precipitation in a large area over a long period of

time.

Gases found in the atmosphere:

a. Nitrogen – about 78%

- nitrogen in air reacts with chemicals to produce

nitrates, which are used by living

things for the manufacture of proteins

- is returned to the atmosphere by the process of decay

b. Oxygen – 21%

-used for respiration

-for combustion processes

c. Other gases – (water vapor, CO2

, O3)

Layers in the atmosphere

1. Troposphere – layer where life exists

- where different weather conditions prevail

- has lowest temperature

2. Stratosphere – contains ozone that serves as a

protective shield against UV rays.

- where jetstream is found

3. Mesosphere – layer where meteoroids that enter the

earth’s atmosphere are burned.

4. Ionosphere – contains ions that are used for radio

communications

5. Exosphere – orbit space for artificial satellites.

● The uneven temperature and pressure in the

atmosphere result in the movement of air

called winds.

● Monsoons are examples of winds that result from the

differences in the absorption and

reflection of thermal energy by different materials of

Earth.

Ecology

Partial preview of the text

Download Reviewer for Science and more Study notes Earth science in PDF only on Docsity!

Definitions of Science ● An organized body of knowledge gathered over a long period of time to explain the world we live in. ● Knowledge or a system covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method. Scientific Method

Identifying the problem (Questioning)
Gathering Preliminary data
Formulating a hypothesis*
Testing of the hypothesis
Analysis and Interpretation of data
Drawing of Conclusion Independent Variable – variable changed by the experimenter Dependent Variable – variable that responds to the variable that is changed in the experiment. Experimental group – groups that receive treatment. Control group – opposite of Experimental. ● hypothesis – it is what we think the answer to the question is and it should stated in terms of the variables defined. *Laws and Theories Scientific law – a description of a natural occurrence that has been observed many times. *Scientific theory – a reasonable explanation of a scientific law. It is derived from a hypothesis that has been supported by repeated testing. *Model – helps visualize occurrences and objects that cannot be observed directly. Note: Scientific laws and theories cannot be proven absolutely. They are maintained as all observations support them. Measurements ● In science, the metric system is used in all measurements for its convenience and simplicity. ● The International System of Units (SI) uses the seven base quantities and units given below: Physical Quantity Unit Name (symbol) Mass Kilogram, kg Length Meter, m Time Second, s Amount of Substance Mole, mol Temperature Kelvin, K Electric current Ampere, A Luminous intensity Candela, cd Major Regions of the Earth
Lithosphere – the solid part and the largest portion of the earth
Hydrosphere – the liquid part. It covers about 71% of the earth’s surface
Atmosphere – the gaseous portion that envelops the earth
Biosphere – the region where living things are found. Rocks and Minerals Everywhere you look, you find rocks of different shapes and sizes. What is important to remember about rocks is the way they were formed. The varying conditions for the rock formation influence the characteristics that each rock develops, ● Igneous rocks – formed from hardened magma and lava. e.g. Rhyolite, Granite, Basalt, etc. ● Sedimentary rocks – form from deposited fragments or particles of other rocks that have been weathered and eroded. e.g. limestone, conglomerate, dolomite, shale ● Metamorphic rocks – rocks that have undergone changes due to heat and pressure e.g. marble (from limestone), slate(from shale)
- Rocks are made up of minerals which are either elements or compounds. Weathering is a term for all processes which combine to cause the disintegration and chemical alteration of rocks at or near earth surface. Erosion includes all the process of loosening, removal, and transportation which tend to wear away the earth’s surface. Lithification is the conversion of unconsolidated sediment into solid rock. Weather and Climate Meteorology – the study of the earth’s atmosphere, weather and climate Weather – the daily condition of the earth’s atmosphere Climate – general conditions of temperature and precipitation in a large area over a long period of time. Gases found in the atmosphere: a. Nitrogen – about 78%
- nitrogen in air reacts with chemicals to produce nitrates, which are used by living things for the manufacture of proteins
- is returned to the atmosphere by the process of decay b. Oxygen – 21%
- used for respiration
- for combustion processes c. Other gases – (water vapor, CO , O3) Layers in the atmosphere
1. Troposphere – layer where life exists
- where different weather conditions prevail
- has lowest temperature
1. Stratosphere – contains ozone that serves as a protective shield against UV rays.
- where jetstream is found
1. Mesosphere – layer where meteoroids that enter the earth’s atmosphere are burned.
2. Ionosphere – contains ions that are used for radio communications
3. Exosphere – orbit space for artificial satellites. ● The uneven temperature and pressure in the atmosphere result in the movement of air called winds. ● Monsoons are examples of winds that result from the differences in the absorption and reflection of thermal energy by different materials of Earth. Ecology

Ecology – the study of how living things interact with their environment.
Ecological Factors a. biotic – all living factors in the environment b. abiotic – nonliving factors that are essential to living organisms.
Population – a group of the same species living together
Community – all the different populations living together
Ecosystem – community of different living things interacting with one another and with their nonliving environment
Biomes – a large area whose ecological communities are determined by its climate. Solar System The probable origin of our solar system, specifically the sun, is similar to that of other stars. The age of a star is related to its temperature and its color. Bluish and white stars are the hottest and youngest stars. The least hot and the oldest star are the reddish stars. Nebular theory – states that the solar system originated from a rotating gas and dust cloud composed of hydrogen, helium and some heavier elements. Ptolemaic Theory – The earth is stationary; each planet and the sun revolved around the earth. Copernican Theory – This theory considers the sun as the center of the solar system. The earth and other planets revolve around the sun in a circular orbit. Planets

Mercury- Rocky, cratered surface; extremely thin atmosphere
Venus-Thick cloud cover; green house effect
Earth-liquid water, life
Mars-polar ice caps, pink sky, dominant volcanoes
Jupiter-Great red spots, thin ring; huge magnetosphere
Saturn-many rings and ringlets, Titan only moon with substantial atmosphere
Uranus-Rotates on side; worldwide ocean of superheated water
Neptune- Unusual satellite rotation, 4 rings, great dark spot. Asteroids - are objects that orbit the sun like planets. However they are smaller than the planets and so they are sometimes called minor planet. Meteoroids – are objects smaller than the asteroids that revolve around the sun. Comet - is a mass of frozen materials such as water, methane and ammonia along with the bits of rock and dust. Solar eclipse – when the sun, the moon and the earth are in straight line. During solar eclipse, the sun can’t be seen from earth because the moon covers it. Lunar eclipse – same as solar but in this case the sun covers the moon. Biology – the branch of science that deals with the study of living systems and life processes. A. Cells This is probably the most basic term that you would need to know. All living systems are composed of cells. They are the basic unit of structure and function in living things. Organelles are structures with specific functions found within living cells. ❖ Nucleus – This organelle is arguably the most important structure in the cell because it serves as the control center in which individual functions of the other organelles are coordinated. ❖ Cell wall/cell membrane – the cell wall in plant cells and in some monerans and protests provides rigidity for support to the cells and a characteristic shape for functionality and structure. The cell membrane on the other hand is selectively permeable. ❖ Mitochondrion – this organelle is also called as “powerhouse of the cell”. It serves as the site where ATPs are abundantly synthesized. ❖ Chloroplast – this serves as the site of photosynthesis among plants and photosynthetic algae. ❖ Ribosome – this serves as the site of protein synthesis. ❖ Endoplasmic Reticulum – These organelles serve as channels or passageways through which materials are transported to the different parts of the cell. ❖ Centriole – this serves for cytokinetic purposes and is very common among dividing cells ❖ Lysosome – the structure is also called “suicidal bag” as it releases digestive juices ❖ Golgi apparatus – this serves for selection and packaging of cellular materials. How did the concept of the cell come about? The Cell Theory serves as the basis on which everything that we know about the cell is anchored. There are three elements to this theory;
1. All living things are made up of cells.
2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living systems.

Lipids fatty acids + glycerol Saccharides – Sugars Monosaccharide one unit Disaccharide two units of monosaccharide Glycogen stored food in animals Starch stored food in plants Cellulose supporting framework of plants Nucleotides Components

Nitrogenous Base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil)
Sugar moiety
phosphate group DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid RNA – ribonucleic acid A. Vector and Scalar Scalar quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude only Examples: a) Mass d) Area b) Time e) Distance c) Temperature Vector quantity – a quantity which is expressed by magnitude and direction Examples: a) Force d) Acceleration b) Velocity e) Displacement c) Weight ● An arrow is used to represent a vector Parts of the arrow a) arrowhead – indicates the direction of the vector b) length of the arrow – represents the magnitude of the vector c) Tail – represents the origin of the vector Resultant vector – sum/difference of two or more vectors which will give the same effect as the original vectors. Speed vs. Velocity Speed – measure of how fast an object travels o Average speed – ration of total distance traveled to the time needed to cover that distance. Ch.3 - Cells (cont) plasmodesmata - cytoplasmic connections between plants , a tube of plasma membrane that has ER running through it, made during mytotic division apoplast - cell wall space of connected cells symplast = cytoplasm ofconnected cells Golgi Apparatus - where glycoproteins and complex polysacchairdes are made important for diving or secretory cells Plastids - chloro(contain caretenoids, and chlorophyll), amylo(in starch storage organs), proplast, own genome, self replicating, endosymbiotic origin,chromoplasts are yellow, red or orange* Vacuole - peanut in an M&M, storage, anthocyanin pigments, Cheap growth sometimes plant over accumulate CA2+ and it gets put in the vacuolethen precipitated out as crystals defensive! tannins denature and precipitate proteins. cellulose - linear b glucose polymer, extend cell wall space through the plasma membrane made via cellulose synthase, control layout of micro tubule tracks to control the shape hemicellulose and pectin are made via golgi apparatus and excytosed to cell wall hemicellulose keeps fibrils in place hetero polysaccharide: glucose, xylose, arabin pectin plays big role in middle lamella hetero polysaccharide: galacturonic acid, gel forming making cell walls pliable GMO dont want food to degrade (reduce levels of polygalacturonase) cell wall and cell division- cytokinisis Primary Cell Wall - thin, growing and dividing, pliable and eleastic, cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin Secondary Cell Wall - thick, inside primary, hard and rigid(cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin), dead, often lignified

Concentration

- a general term that expresses the quantity of solute contained in each amount of solution Solute the substance being dissolved in a solution Solvent a substance that is able to dissolve other substances Concentrated Solution a solution that contains a relatively large amount of dissolved solute Diluted Solution a solution that contains relatively small amounts of solute Mass the amount of matter in an object ,usually expressed in grams (g)

Conversion: 1 kg = 1000 g Atomic Mass units (amu) the formula mass of a substance is the sum of the average atomic masses of each atom represented in the chemical formula and is expressed in atomic mass units (amu)
Conversion: 1 amu = 1 gram Volume
apparatus used to measure volumes is usually marked in cm³ or mL.
Conversion: 250 ml = 250 cm³
Conversion: 1 L = 1000 ml usually expressed in liters (L) Molar mass the mass of the one mole of the compound
equal to the sum of the atomic masses of its constituent atoms in g/mol Percent by mass When a solute in a solution is a solid, a convenient way to express the concentration is a mass percent (mass/mass), which is the grams of solute per 100g of solution. % m = mass of solute/mass of solution x 100 Percent by volume The percentage of solute in a solution can be easily determined by volume when the solute and solvent are both liquids. % v = volume of solute/volume of solution x 100 Percent by mass/volume The mass/volume percent is calculated by dividing the mass of the solute by the volume of the solution and expressing the result as a percent. % m/v = mass of solute (g)/__ volume of solution (mL) x 100 Molarity/Molar Concentration The number of moles of solute per liter of solution (NOT per liter of solvent). M = moles of solute (mol)/ volume of solution (L) Molality The moles of solute divided by the kilogram of solvent. m = moles of solute (mol)/ mass of solvent (kg) Mole fraction
- Represents the number of molecules of a particular component in mixture a divided by the total number of moles in the given mixture. Xsolute moles of solute/ total moles of solution Xsolvent=moles of solvent/ total moles of solution Stoichiometry is the field of chemistry that is concerned with the relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions.
- For any balanced chemical reaction, whole numbers (coefficients) are used to show the quantities (generally in moles) of both the reactants and products.

Reviewer for Science, Study notes of Earth science

Related documents

Partial preview of the text

Download Reviewer for Science and more Study notes Earth science in PDF only on Docsity!