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PSYCH 101 Exam 2 Questions And Answers
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Sensation - ANS the way that our bodies sense stimuli perception - ANS how our brains process the stimuli sensed by our body top-down processing - ANS information processing guided by a higher-level mental processes bottom-up processing - ANS analysis that begins with the sensory receptors absolute threshold - ANS the minimum stimulation necessary for detection 50% of the time difference threshold - ANS the minimum difference a person can detect between any two stimuli 50% of the time Weber's Law - ANS for their difference to be perceptible, two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion- not a constant amount. Sensory Adaptation - ANS our diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus
wavelength - ANS the distance from one wave peak to the next; determines hue intensity - ANS amount of energy in light waves; determined by a waves amplitude (height); influences brightness accommodation - ANS focuses by changing its curvature blind spot - ANS where the optic nerve lease the eye there are no receptor cells Cones - ANS cluster around the fovea (retina's area of central focus); each has its own bipolar cell; preserves precise information; can see color; can't function in dim light Rods - ANS black and white vision; capable in dim light Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory - ANS retina has three types of color receptors, each especially sensitive to red, green, and blue Opponent-process theory - ANS as visual information leaves the receptor cells, we analyze it in terms of the opponent colors What are the opponent colors? - ANS red and green, blue and yellow, black and white
similarity - ANS grouping of items that look alike connectedness - ANS tendency to perceive uniform or attached items as a single unit Depth Perception - ANS the ability to see objects in three dimensions despite their two-dimensional representations on retinas; allows us to estimate distance visual cliff - ANS by the time a species is mobile it has the perceptual abilities it needs visual cues - ANS factors that provide us with depth perception binocular cues - ANS any cue that requires the use of both eyes retinal disparity - ANS the greater the difference between the images received by the two eyes, the nearer the object monocular cues - ANS any cue that requires either eye alone relative size - ANS if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as further away
interposition - ANS if an object partially blocks our view of another it is perceived as closer relative height - ANS we perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away relative motion - ANS on a moving vehicle, objects far away from our fixation point seem to move faster linear perspective - ANS parallel lines appear to converge with distance light and shadow - ANS nearby objects reflect more light to our eyes; dimmer objects seem to be further away selective attention - ANS our awareness focuses on only a limited aspect of all that we experience in-attentional blindness - ANS when you are focusing on something specific, stimuli outside that focusing area go unnoticed change blindness - ANS after a brief visual interruption, some stimuli may change and go unnoticed choice blindness - ANS a person can explain their choice of the most attractive face they chose even if researchers replace it with another face
REM Sleep - ANS rapid eye movement sleep; motor cortex is active; muscles are relaxed; parodical sleep rapid eye movements generally signal - ANS the beginning of a dream Entire sleep cycle lasts - ANS 90 minutes newborns spend ___of day asleep - ANS 2/ adults spend ___ of day asleep - ANS 1/ sleep patterns are influenced by - ANS the following genes - ANS identical twins are very similar culture - ANS people sleep less than they have in the past teenagers typically need - ANS 8-9 hours reasons for sleep - ANS protect us; helps us recuperate; facilitates our memory; stimulates creative thinking; may play a role in the growth process
Benefits of Sleep - ANS strengthens memory; increases concentration; boosts mood; moderates hunger and obesity; fortifies the disease-fighting immune system; lessens risk of fatal accidents Sleep Disorders - ANS The Following insomnia - ANS persistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep narcolepsy - ANS person experiences uncontrollable sleep attacks; may lapse directly into REM sleep sleep apnea - ANS stop breathing while sleeping night terrors - ANS characterized by extreme fright and rapid heartbeat and breathing; stage 4 sleep; young children hypnosis - ANS a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, or behaviors will spontaneously occur posthypnotic suggestions - ANS a suggestion made during a hypnosis session to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized have helped alleviate - ANS headaches, asthma, and stress-related skin disorders; helpful for obesity; can relieve pain
1 - ANS addictive drugs quickly corrupt 2 - ANS addictions cannot be overcome voluntarily, therapy is required 3 - ANS We can extend the concept of addiction to cover a whole spectrum of repetitive, pleasure seeking behaviors Categories of Drugs - ANS the following depressants - ANS slow body functions stimulants - ANS speed body functions hallucinogens - ANS alter perception hallucinogens - ANS distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input LSD - ANS chemically similar to a subtype of seratonin: blocks the actions of this neurotransmitter Marijuana - ANS active ingredient THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) produces a mix of effects
effects of marijuana - ANS relaxes disinhibits; euphoric high; mild hallucinogen; impairs motor coordination, perceptual skills, and reaction time; disrupts memory formation more one uses it the greater one's risk of - ANS anxiety, depression, or schizophrenia learning - ANS a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience associative learning - ANS learning that certain events occur together two stimuli - ANS classical conditioning response and it's consequences - ANS operant conditioning Classical Conditioning - ANS a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate two stimuli explored by Russian physiologist - ANS Ivan Pavlov psychologist John Watson urged psychologist to - ANS the following
If a CS is repeatedly presented without the US - ANS extinction soon occurs spontaneous recovery - ANS when the CR reappears in response to the CS generalization - ANS Subjects often respond to similar stimulus as they would to the original CS discrimination - ANS Being able to recognize differences among stimuli had survival value because it lets us limit our learned responses to appropriate stimuli Study of Classical Conditioning is important because - ANS we know that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning; drug users develop a craving when they encounter cues associated with previous highs; research studies can demonstrate that the bodies immune system can be classically conditioned The Watson and Rainier Experiment - ANS John Watson's idea that emotions and behaviors are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses "Little Albert" - ANS conditioned him to fear white rats by sounding a loud noise when the rat appeared Operant Conditioning - ANS a type of learning in which a behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher organisms associate - ANS their own actions with consequences
respondent behavior - ANS a behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Classical Conditioning operant behavior - ANS behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli; Operant Conditioning Thorndike's law of effect - ANS rewarded behavior is likely to recur Skinner designed an - ANS operant chamber (Skinner Box) shaping - ANS the procedure in which a person teaches an animal to perform an intricate behavior by building up to it in small steps discriminative stimulus - ANS a situation, event, or signal that a certain response will be reinforced reinforcement - ANS any event that strengthens a preceding response; any consequence that strengthens behavior Positive and Negative - ANS following positive reinforcer - ANS a stimulus that strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response
Continuous Reinforcement - ANS reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs; learning is rapid; discontinued... extinction rapid partial (intermittent) reinforcement - ANS responses are reinforced only some of the time; learning is slower; behavior is very resistant to extinction Types of partial reinforcement - ANS following fixed-ratio - ANS behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses variable-ratio - ANS reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable set of responses fixed-interval - ANS reinforcement of the first response after a set interval of time variable-interval - ANS first response after varying amounts of time is reinforced observational learning - ANS learning by observing and imitating others modeling - ANS when it involves a specific behavior mirror neurons - ANS (in a frontal-lobe area adjacent to the brain's motor cortex) that provide a neural basis for observational learning
mirror neurons continued - ANS these neurons have been observed to fire when monkeys perform a simple task and they observe other monkeys performing the same task 9 months - ANS infants will imitate novel play behaviors 14 months - ANS imitate acts modeled on TV Albert Bandura - ANS psychologist best known for research on observational learning models are most effective when they are perceived as - ANS similar, successful, or admirable prosocial(positive, helpful) models - ANS have positive effects; models are most effective when their words and actions are consistent antisocial effects - ANS abusive parents may have aggressive children; lessons learned as children are not easily unlearned as adults TV depicts much higher percentage of - ANS crimes than what truly exist violence effect stems from - ANS imitation of observed aggression; tendency of prolonged exposure to desensitize viewers
Working Memory cont. - ANS quickly fades unless we keep using or rehearsing it automatic processing - ANS unconscious encoding of incidental information; space, time, frequency, and well learned information such as word meanings some processing requires effort at first but with - ANS practice and experience becomes effortless effortful processing - ANS encoding that requires attention and conscious effort rehearsal - ANS conscious repetition of information; maintain it in consciousness; encode it for storage Hermann Ebbinghaus - ANS found that the longer he studied a list on nonsense syllables, the fewer the number of repetitions he required to relearn it later overlearning - ANS additional rehearsal increases retention spacing effect - ANS distributed rehearsal is more effective for retention serial position effect - ANS tendency to remember the first and last items on a list best
recency effect - ANS ability to briefly recall the last items on a list especially quickly and well primary effect - ANS following a delay, the first items are remembered better than the last items We process information by encoding its - ANS meaning or its image or by mentally organizing the information when processing verbal information for storage - ANS we usually encode its meaning as associating it with what we already know semantic encoding - ANS encoding the meaning of words; this encoding is the most effective acoustic encoding - ANS encoding by sound visual encoding - ANS encoding the image of words concrete, high-imagery words tend to be remembered - ANS better than abstract, low-imagery words memory for concrete nouns is facilitated - ANS when we encode them semantically and visually
