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88 The Wilson Bulletin-June, 1932
SNAKES VERSUS BIRDS ; BIRDS VERSUS SNAKES
BY J. E. GUTHRIE “But when I found myself on the ground, I speedily untied the knot, and had scarcely done so, when the rot, having taken up a ser- pent of a monstrous length in her bill, hew away. I could not view without terror a great number of serpents, so monstrous that the least of them was capable of swallowing an elephant. They retired in the daytime to their dens, where they hid themselves from the rot, their enemy, and came out only in the night.” From The Second Voyage of Sindbad, “Arabian Nights”. Ingersoll (65, p. 200). “Between the eagle and the dragon there is constant enmity, the eagle seeking to kill it, and the dragon breaks all the eagles’ eggs it can find; and hearing the noise of the eagle in the air, speedeth to its den, and there hides himself.” Cruden’s^ Concordance,^1737 (p.^ 152). “By them there sat the loving pellican Whose young ones poisoned by the serpent’s sting, With her own blood again to life doth bring.” Noah’s Flood. Michael Drayton in “Birds in Legend, Fable and Folklore” (65, p. 59).
Quoting further from Ingersoll (65, p. 24) : “Whatever tradition or
superstition or other motive affected the choice of a bird as a tribal totem, or endowed it with sacredness, practical considerations were surely influential. It is noticeable that the venerated ibis and hawk in Egypt were useful to the people as devourers of vermin-young crocodiles, poisonous snakes, grain-eating mice, and so forth. A tra- dition in the Aegean island Tenos is that Poseidon, a Greek St. Patrick, sent storks to clear the island of snakes, which originally were numer- ous there. Australian^ frontiersmen^ preserve the big kingfisher^ dubbed laughing-jackass for the same good reason.” Ingersoll (65, p. 39) recounts how “the Aztecs moved into the valley of Mexico and settled upon certain islets in a marshy lake- the site of the subsequent City of Mexico; and this safe site is said to have been pointed out to them by a sign from their gods-an eagle perched upon a prickly-pear cactus, the nopal, in the act of strangling a serpent. Cortez engraved it upon his Great Seal, and Mexico has kept it to this day.”
Someone has said: “A bird is but a glorified reptile”, and the Mayas of Yucatan guarded their great temple with stone statues of feather-decked rattlesnakes representing their deity Huitzilopochtli or Kukulcan-surely a glorified reptile!
Snakes vs. Birds: Birds vs. Snakes 89
Naturally, the main relation between birds and snakes is a food- relation. Snakes are meat and birds are meat. Snakes are carni- vorous and so are many birds, very few birds being entirely vegetarian. Some snakes eat eggs and so do some birds. Some snakes and some birds compete among themselves and with each other for items in the same food supply. If the heron spears the frog, the water snake goes
hungry ; if the bull snake seizes the mouse, the hawk dines elsewhere.
Th e garter snake dozes away the morning, digesting his supper of earthworms while the early bird hunts just that much harder for a cropful. Mrs. Mary L. Bailey (6, p. 221) even witnessed a spirited battle between an American Bittern and a snake, judged to be a garter snake, for the possession of a frog which both had seized. The bird got the lunch. And we may go even deeper; for the mouse that would have eaten the weed seeds is the prey of a milk snake, and the Song Sparrow converts those very seeds into songs. It might make life interesting to a cricket to speculate whether a young blue racer will seize him, or whether he will be stuffed down the hunger-well of a nestling meadowlark. Moreover, sometimes the scaly and the feathery beings have common enemies. A garter snake, a chickadee, a mouse and a grasshopper might easily find themselves close neighbors-cen- trally located in a henhawk. Before going more specifically into these food relations, let us look at a touching instance of devotion, in which the serpent even gives the coat off his back for the comfort of the others’ bairns. (^) It is Myriarchus crinitus boreus, of course, that “Wild Irishman of the fly- catchers” as the Sage of Slabsides called the Northern Crested Fly- catcher, who is the best known “ol’clo’es man”-he and some cousins of his. Alexander Wilson (120, Vol. 2, p. 134) says: “Snake skins with this bird appear to be an indispensable article, for I have never yet found one of his nests without this material forming a part of it. Whether he surrounds his nest thus by way of terrorem, to prevent other birds or animals from entering, or whether he finds its silky softness suitable for his young is uncertain; the fact however is no- torious.” (^) In speaking of the several species of birds which bed them- selves with snake sloughs, Finn (41, p. 113) says: “All of the birds with this liking for snakes’ old clothes breed in holes, and it has been suggested that the slough is used to terrify intrusive lizards, which are no friends to eggs and young birds, and are themselves preyed upon by snakes.” Strecker (111, p. 506) apparently disproves this suppo- sition by listing among fourteen snake-skin users, eight which nest in holes, one which usually does and five which do not. Dugmore (38,
Snakes vs. Birds: Birds vs. Snakes 91
viper found in the nest of a Buzzard, Buteo vulgaris. In this instance, noted from Pomerania, the living viper was found beneath the dead body of the female Buzzard. Sometimes it has been bull snakes or other snakes which may have come because they were egg-hungry. SNAKES EAT BIRDS In dealing with the direct food relations between these two classes of animals we shall first consider snakes as the eaters. Some birds and some snakes consume eggs. All birds and some snakes lay them. Advantage goes to the snake, however, for her eggs are usually better concealed. To offset this, the caciques, icterine birds allied to the orioles, weave pendant nests a yard long, apparently to ensure safety from monkeys and snakes. An instance is recorded by Blanchard (18, p. 48) in which a captive milk snake ate even the eggs of a ring-neck snake. Two tropical, egg-eating snakes are so specialized for this egg diet that ventrally projecting blades from the neck vertebrae slit the shells of birds’ eggs that are being swallowed. Did the man who in- vented the band-cutter on the threshing machine know about this, we wonder! In Boulenger’s Fauna of British India (22, p. 393) we read concerning the genus Elachistodon: (^) “As in the African genus Dasy- peltis, each of the anterior vertebrae has the hypapophysis or inferior process much elongate, toothlike, capped with enamel and penetrating the walls of the oesophagus.” It has been observed that the African snakes feed on eggs, (Wood, 122, IPI, p. 135) “which are broken in passing along this series of processes, and having arrived so far down the gullet that the mouth can be closed, none of the contents are lost. The same is doubtless the case with Elachistodon.” The process of engulfing an egg is an interesting one to watch, whether it is by a milk snake or young bull snake swallowing a spar- row’s egg, or a full-grown pilot blacksnake taking down a hen’s egg. The egg is approached, touched delicately with the tips of the ex- quisitely sensitive tongue, and the diner is satisfied that it is desirable food. (How can a young snake know what is going to be inside his
first egg? Ask Nature! ). The snake now often moves about, stretches
its jaws, does various things before actually beginning the swallowing process. Why? Perhaps its imagination is setting its salivary glands at work secreting the large amount of saliva necessary as a lubricant. The snake does not lick over its prey-egg, bird, or mouse-to make it slippery before beginning its meal. An egg is a difficult object to get into the mouth; it is so big, round and smooth, and so hard. John Cole, of Wisconsin, told the writer that his father had known a bull snake in Iowa to visit a turkey’s nest daily and swallow the freshly
92 The Wilson Bulletin-June, 1932
laid egg. The jaws are pushed over it as the egg is pressed against some convenient object or even against the snake’s own coils. Ad- vancing right and left sides alternately its jaws literally crawl over the mouthful. When it is past the head, the muscles of the neck con- tract and pull it down. After passing down perhaps a foot (in a five- foot snake), the muscles are powerfully tightened and the rough lower ridges of the vertebrae brought to bear on the egg so that the shell gives way. Some snakes are said to swallow^ the egg whole^ all^ the way down and to rely on the digestive juices to dissolve the shell in the stomach. Snakes are sometimes over-eager nest robbers, as witness the note by Holt (55) describing the swallowing of a stone nest egg by a
pilot snake, Elaphe obsoleta. Another snake, a bull snake, is also re-
ferred to by Trine (117, p. 4) as having swallowed a glass one. Sev- eral episodes are reported of the persistence of snakes after they had once located a nest of eggs. Northup (in 86, p. 330) drove a blue racer out of a bush in which it was caught in the act of taking an egg from the nest of a Bed-winged Blackbird. Thirty minutes later the bird’s cries of distress drew the observer back to the nest where he again found the racer. Seiler (1.03, p. 189) discovered a large bull snake which was climbing the tree containing a wren’s nest. She frightened the intruder away. It (^) soon returned and was found with its head inside the entrance of the wren house. One more such in-
stance : Spencer (106, pp. 108-110) records the attack of a black
racer on a Catbird’s nest in a huckleberry bush. Having eaten all but two of the young birds, it was driven away but was soon back for another, and a little later returned for the last survivor. (^) This observer also found that the eggs of a Bob-white, placed under a hen for hatch- ing, were disappearing, with a great commotion by the foster-mother every time one was taken. When the last one disappeared he saw a great black snake gliding off through the grass. Some species of snakes confine themselves to cold-blooded prey. Ditmars (37, p. 249) says: “Water snakes do not eat birds,” and of
garter snakes, Ditmars (36, p. 246) : “Adult garter snakes feed prin-
cipally upon frogs, toads, and earthworms--never upon warm-blooded prey.” This statement agrees with the experience of the writer, Guthrie (55, p. 186)) who has had scores of garter snakes in captivity and has yet to see one consume or even kill a bird or mouse, or eat a bird’s egg. Esther E. Gilmore (52) working at the University of Michigan Biological Station in 1930 tried repeatedly to get garter snakes to eat living and dead birds and birds’ eggs. The only success she had was in using a kinglet with wings and tail clipped off. A
94 The Wilson Bulletin-June, 1922
bushes. Van Denburgh writes (Blanchard 19, p. 78) of the Boyle’s king snake, Lampropeltis getulus boylii: “I have twice found it swal-
lowing the contents of quails’ nests, and once observed one crawling along the ground, and looking up into the bushes for nests of small birds. Several times while I watched, its quick eyes detected nests three or four feet above it, but although the snake immediately climbed up to these, it did not obtain a meal, for the nests which it examined had been abandoned by their builders or robbed by some earlier
comer.” Director Edgar R. Harlan of the Iowa Historical Society Museum, told the writer that he once shot a pilot snake while it “was investigating a flicker’s nest about sixty feet from the ground.” Some- times the parent birds become militant in defense of their homes. Dr. T. C. Stephens mentions (in correspondence) a case in which a female Brown Thrasher fought an intruding snake. Birds of other species
than those molested frequently gather about an attacking snake and try to scold it to death. Results negative. The usual method of capture is by a quick dart of the head-a snake’s lunge is almost unbelievably swift-and the victim is seized by the nearest corner, head, body, leg, wing; the serpent sometimes getting only a mouthful of wing or tail feathers. The writer has ob- served that when a rattlesnake strikes a mouse or ground squirrel or rat it usually sinks its fangs with their charge of venom, then retreats to a little distance to await the victim’s death. With an English Spar- row, however, the rattler seldom lets go after the stroke but holds on until the poison has done its work. As a snake could not follow its wounded prey by the air route it probably saves not a few meals by this habit. Of course the non-venomous bird-eaters retain their hold until the captured prey is either killed-in the case of such constric- tors as the bull snake, fox snake, or pilot snake-or until it gets the living prey jockeyed around into swallowing position-in case of a racer or coach-whip. As to how the bird is approached or attracted near enough to be taken there seems to be some doubt. Probably such an inconspicuous object as a snake, fitting so well into the lines and colors of its surroundings, may often be accidentally approached by a hapless bird which does not realize the presence of the danger until too late. Probably, also, the noiseless reptile occasionally sneaks up successfully while its intended quarry is otherwise occupied. It is in- teresting to know that from the same Anglo-Saxon word s&an, to creep, came the two words, snake and sneak.
Snakes vs. Birds: Birds vs. Snakes 95
The question of the occult influence which a snake’s mind is popularly supposed to exert on the mind of the bird is a matter of spirited debate. Over a century ago, James E. DeKay observed (35, p. 57): “The^ absurd^ notion^ of^ fascination^ is entertained^ by^ few^ at the present day.” Psychologists versed in the lore of mind, and know- ing how much inferior is the reptile brain to that of its avian prey deny this power to the snake-and one cannot doubt that men who have observed snakes for half a life time and studied them under- standingly, would be likely to be on the lookout for and would notice any evidence of this phenomenon. Such men almost universally ex- press their disbelief in any such occurrence in nature. The writer has had many bird-eating snakes-rattlers, fox snakes, bull snakes, pilot snakes, whip-snakes, blacksnakes, blue racers, king snakes, and boas. He has seen a sparrow peck at a rattlesnake’s nose and ride around on the coils of a writhing rattler or bull snake. There was usually no evidence of fear unless the snake lunged, and never a sign of that paralysis supposed to hold the victim immovable through the baleful glare of the serpent’s eye. To be sure, not to have seen such a phenomenon does not prove its impossibility. In explanation of the happenings one often hears recounted one is inclined to think of a fear paralysis such as sometimes is said to hold a man when a loco- motive or automobile bears suddenly down upon him. Perhaps, thus, fear is the explanation. Undoubtedly the frantic parents in defense of nest and young sometimes venture too close for safety. Possibly a pugnacious bird in attacking an intruder becomes foolhardy--and rues it. And so, in the face of many hard-to-explain accounts by ob- servers who thus interpreted the things they observed, Mr. H. A. Sur- face in “The Serpents of Pennsylvania” (114, p. 120) observes: “It is popularly believed that snakes have the power to charm birds and the lower animals and even mankind, but with the most careful in- vestigation, we can not find satisfactory evidences of the truth of this. It is true that some creatures, such as birds, and even some persons, become so terrified at suddenly seeing a snake that they act more or less helpless, but this is quite different from being charmed.” Max Morse in Batrachians and Keptiles of Ohio (84, p. 100) re-
marks : “SO many superstitions are associated with these forms of
animal life that it would be impossible to cover them in this paper, to say nothing of attempting to disprove them. As classic examples we
may cite... the charming power of snakes. It is needless to say that
all these are myths.” In “the Poisonous Snakes of North America” (108, pp. 292-293) Dr. Leonard Stejneger reviews the evidence con-
Snakes vs. Birds: Birds vs. Snakes 97
facts which I have seen bearing any relation to the supposed fascinat- ing faculty. They appear to me to lend no strength to the idea of its existence.” AND BIRDS DEVOUR SNAKES So far as the literature goes the writer has found no record of birds having consumed the eggs of snakes, though doubtless some of them would do so if they could find them. Some strange instances come to light occasionally in which the most unexpected of birds are snake-eaters. The writer has been told of hens killing and eating green snakes, Liopeltis vernalis, in Iowa, and Blatchley (20, p. 549)
writes : “I saw a chicken running along the roadside with a squirming
snake in its bill. After a sharp chase of the fowl through a rail fence and a blackberry patch, its prey was dropped and proved to be a fine specimen of Storer’s snake, Sforeria occipitomaculata.” Crimmins (32, p. 46) says: “I have personally seen chickens kill and eat rattle- snakes.” These were young Texas diamond-back rattlers about twelve inches long. Oddly enough, several observations show that Robins sometimes feed them to their nestlings. McIntosh (76, p. 152) found a Robin pecking a thirteen-inch garter snake. The snake was evi- dently nearly dead when the bird finally managed to pick it up and fly off about seventy-five feet to a’ post on which one of its young was seated. (^) It tried to feed it to the baby, which, of course, was unable to handle the unwieldy morsel. (^) The snake was dropped to the ground but was picked up later and another futile attempt made to feed it to the young bird. Marshall (80, p. 304) saw a Robin kill a ten-inch garter snake and carry it up into a tree. Being called away he did not see the snake eaten but it was gone when he returned. Friedmann (47, pp. 259-260) once put two young Cowbirds in a Robin’s nest. The Robins accepted and reared them and on one occasion he noticed that one of the young Cowbirds had been fed a very young garter snake which it finally swallowed and digested. Mallard Ducks are reported to occasionally eat snakes, (McAtee 78, p. 113), while Hay (56, p. 527) says that turkeys and ducks eat garter snakes. Crimmins (32, p. 47) sa s cy h’ rc ens and k muscovy ducks ate pieces of a young Texas diamond-back rattlesnake, Crolalus atrox. However, these are apparently unusual cases. Some birds which are mainly meat-eaters as shrikes, hawks, herons and the like eat con- siderable numbers of the scaly prey. Note the name “serpent eagle” applied to members of the genus Spilornis in the East Indies and Africa. The harrier eagles, Batastur, are also called “serpent eagles” and several kites go by the name of “snake hawks”. The shrikes or
98 The Wilson Bulletin-June, 1932
butcher birds, besides their usual fare of insects, rodents, and birds have serpents occasionally on their menu. Ditmars (36, p. 274) nar-
rates thus : “During a collecting trip a queer observation was made.
A heavy rain had fallen the night before, enticing the burrowing snakes from their hiding places. Evidently the scarlet snakes, Cemo- phora coccinea, had been conspicuous objects during the early morn- ing. On the ends of dead twigs and stems, right and left, were the weird souvenirs of the shrikes or butcher birds, consisting of partially- eaten bodies of snakes. The reptiles were securely fastened by forc- ing the tip of the twig into the body cavity like a finger into a glove. The shrike is a carnivorous bird, notorious in having eyes too big for its stomach. Its half-eaten prey is thus jauntily deserted.” One would consider venomous sea-snakes safe from attacks of birds, but sea captains of the Molucca and Sunda Straits told Dr. Ditmars (36, p. 289) of having seen albatrosses and frigate birds dragging these serpents from the waves and flying to the rigging of the ship to kill and devour them. South Africa has two animals com- monly known as “ringhals”. (^) One is a cobra which eats birds and eggs, the other is the white-necked raven which often feeds on snakes. Even the bush kingfisher, Halcyon, of Africa, and the “laughing jack- ass”, Dacelo gigas, kingfisher of Australia, are snakivorous. The lat- ter, according to Wood (122, p. 170)) “catches them by the tail and
crushing their heads with its powerful beak.. .” Another observer,
Lucas and LeSouef (74, p. 161)) describes the execution somewhat differently: (^) “Swooping down from his perch of observation, with his formidable beak the latter (Laughing Jackass) strikes the snake before his own feet reach the ground, breaks the back of the reptile, and so disables it. He will fly up with the snake in his mouth, and then let it drop from a height back to the ground, and repeat this treatment until the snake can be safely swallowed.” The ground hornbill, Bucorax cafer, subsists partly upon these reptiles as does the ground cuckoo known as Road-runner or chaparral cock of our Pacific coast, renowned in popular belief as being a valiant slayer of rattlesnakes. Naturally, many raptorial birds such as hawks, owls, and buzzards find scaly prey to their taste. (^) Of the wading birds, the Sandhill Crane, Grus canadensis tabida, the Great Blue Heron, Ardea h. herodias, and the American Bittern, Botaurus Zentiginosus, are serpent eaters. Klauber (70, p. 13) observes: (^) “Aside from man: the principal ene- mies of the rattle snakes in this county [San Diego County, California]
are birds and other snakes. E ag es, hawks, 1 and owls are sometimes
seen carrying rattlers and other snakes in their talons.” Blatchley
100 The^ Wilson^ Bulletin-June,^1932
For practical purposes, for the Middle West, the Buteo hawks, especially the Red-tailed Hawk, the Marsh Hawk, and probably to a lesser extent Crows, herons and bitterns are the birds which send a shudder down the sinuous backbones of small snakes. Yet even though these birds take toll of some of our most valuable snakes, their rodent- des’troying habits place them safely in the column of our feathered farm friends. And as to our snakes, what shall we say? Probably the pilot blacksnake, an inveterate climber, destroys more birds than any other in its habitat. Branson (23, p. 388) believed this to be the case in Kansas. Bull snakes, fox snakes, and racers get some eggs and young birds, with occasionally an adult. All these snakes are ex- tremely valuable as mousers, ratters, squirrelers, and gopherers; and the blue racer as an insect-eater as well, to be too hastily condemned and summarily executed en masse for being “bird-lovers”. Our other snakes probably do too little harm to birds to even deserve dishonor- able mention. Following is a list of snake bird-eaters and bird snake-eaters, not at all exhaustive, but suggestive, gathered from what literature was accessible to the writer. A considerable number of the references were kindly suggested by T. C. Stephens.
SNAKES EATEN BI- BIRDS In the following list the scientific as well as the common names of both snakes and birds are given when known. Of course, in many cases the species was unknown to the observer, at least the name was not recorded. In other cases the statement found applies to a whole
group : as “herons”, “hawks”, “birds”, “birds’ eggs”, “garter snakes”,
“colubers”, etc. In the numerous cases recorded merely as “reptiles”, snakes and lizards or either one of them may have been meant, but they have not been included in this list. It is probable that any birds that would eat lizards would also eat snakes of suitable size; and that snakes which would eat one bird or egg would devour any other of like size if obtainable. Some of the records are of isolated cases, while others indicate a regular food habit. Moreover, some are records of captive specimens, others of observations in the wild; while many have been gained from stomach examinations of collected specimens. It is not always possible from the records to determine which of the above was the case.
Snakes vs. Birds: Birds vs. Snakes 101
Albatrosses eat sea snakes, Boulenger (21).
Water Turkey or Snake Bird, A&zinga anhinga, eats snakes, Audubon
Florida Cormorant, Phalacrocorax auritus floridanus, ate a water snake, Nat&, Pearson (94). Frigate birds eat sea snakes, Boulenger (21).
Large sea birds eat poisonous sea snakes, Ditmars (36, p. 289).
Mallard Duck, Anas boschas, eats small snakes, McAtee (77, p. 10) ;
McAtee (78, p. 113). Kattlesnakes, Crimmins (32, p. 47). Ducks eat garter snakes, Hay (56, p. 527). Eat Thamnophis sirtalis, De Kay (35, p. 45). Crested Screamer or snake crane, Chauna cristata, (of Brazil) fond of snakes as food, McAtee (78). White Ibis, Guara alba, eats snakes, mostly moccasins, Agkistrodon piscivorus, Baynard (13). Glossy Ibis, I’legadis autumnalis, eats snakes, mostly moccasins, Bay- nard (14). Egyptian Ibis, foe to small snakes, Ingersoll (65, p. 17). Wood Ibis, Jabiru, Mycteria americana, eats snakes, Netting (88, p.
28) ; Smith (105, p. 59).
Ibises eat snakes, Barbour (9, p. 28).
Storks eat snakes, Barbour (9) ; Netting (88). Eat ringed snake,
Tropidonotus natrix, Schmeil (102, p. 240). American Bittern, Rotaurus Zentiginosus, eats snakes, Barrows (11, p.
128) ; Howell (59, p. 24). Water-snakes, Netting (88, p. 28).
Great Blue Heron, Andea herodias, eats snakes, Baker (7) ; Barrows
(11, p. 136) ; Howell (59, p. 25).
American Egret, Ardea egretta, eats small water snakes, Wilson and Bonaparte (120, Vol. 2, p. 300). Mostly moccasins, Agkistrodon piscivorus, Baynard (13). Egret, Ardea (?) rufa, eats snakes, mostly moccasins, Agkistrodon piscivorus, (^) Baynard (13). Snowy Egret eats snakes, mostly moccasins, Agkistrodon piscivorus, Baynard (13). Little Blue Heron, Andes caerulea, eats snakes, Baynard (14). Mostly moccasins, Agkistrodon piscivorus, Baynard (13). Louisiana Heron, Ardea tricolor ruficollis, eats snakes, Baker (7). Green Heron, Ardea virescens, eats snakes, Baker (7). Black-crowned Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax naevius, eats snakes, Baker (7).
Snakes vs. Birds: Birds vs. Snakes 103
Western Red-tailed Hawk, Buteo borealis calurus, eats snakes, Eliot (40, p. 151). Krider’s Hawk, Buteo borealis krideri, ate a blue racer, Coluber con- strictor flaviventris, Gloyd (53, p. 141).
Red-shouldered Hawk, Buteo Zineatus, eats snakes (almost exclusively
in Florida), Barbour (9) ; Nicholson (90, Vol. 42, p. 35) ; Eaton
(39, Vol. 2, p. 84) ; Howell (59, p. 39).
White-tailed Hawk, Buteo albicaudatus sennetti, eats snakes, Fisher
(42). Swainson’s Hawk, Buteo swainsoni, occasionally brought snakes for its young. Ate a garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, and an entire rattlesnake, Cameron (26, p. 174 and pp. 282-283). Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaeetos, very partial to snakes, Cameron
(26, p. 382) ; Fisher (42). Prairie rattlesnake, Crotalus con-
fluentus, Netting (88, p. 28). Bald Eagle, American eagle, HaZiae&us Zeucocephalus, eats snakes, Barrows (11, p. 288). Jean le blanc Eagle, Circaetus gallicus, eats snakes, Wood (122, p. 38).
Eagles, eat rattlesnakes and other snakes, Klauber (70, p. 13).
Serpent eagles, genus Spilornis, eat snakes, New Internat. Encyc. (89).
Harrier Eagle or serpent eagle, oDenus Batastur, (Asiatic and African) eats snakes, New Internat. Encyc. (89). Bataleur, HeZotarsus ecuudatus, (African) eats snakes. New Internat.
Encyc. (89).
Jardine’s harrier (Australia) very fond of small snakes, Wood (122, p. 94). Harrier hawk, I’olyboroides, (Af rican) eats snakes, Fitzsimons (43, Vol. 2, p. 38). Sparrow Hawk, Falco sparverius, ate red-barred garter snake, Tham- nophfs sirtalis parietalis, Blatchley (20, p. 548). Eats small
snakes, Wilson and Bonaparte (120, Vol. 1, p. 30) ; Howell (59,
p. 41). Hawks eat rattlesnakes, genus Crotalus, and other snakes, Klauber (70, p. 13). Garter snakes, Thamnophis, Hay (56, p. 527). Thamnophis sirtalis, DeKay (35, p. 45). Secretary-bird, serpent eagle, Serpentarius secretarius, (Africa) eats
snakes, Fitzsimons (43, Vol. 2, pp. 38 and 155) ; Baskett (12, p.
143) ; Barbour (9, p. 28) ; Daglish (33, p. 176). Poisonous snakes,
Pycraft (95, p. 115). Eats cobras, three snakes as thick as a man’s arm found in one, Wood (122, pp. 89-90).
104 The^ Wilson^ Eullet~n-June,^1932
Screech Owl, Otus asio asio, ate young garter snake, Allen (2, p. 6).
Burrowing Owl, Speotyto cunicularia, attacks^ live^ snakes,^ eats^ dead ones, probably eats small rattlesnakes, Netting (88, p. 28). Burrowing Owl, Speotyto cunlcularia hypogaea, eats Hammond’s gar- ter snake, Thamnophis or,d<noides hammondii, (body of one photo-
graphed in burrow), McLean (79, p. 13 j.
Owls eat rattlesnakes and other snakes, Klauber (70, p. 13). Garter snakes, Hay (56, p. 527). Garter^ snake,^ Thamnophis^ sirtalis, DeKay (35, p. 45). Koad-runner, snake-bird, Geococcyx califorianus, eats small snakes, Eliot (40, p. 162). Kills rattlesnakes, Myers (85, p. 2). Eats
snakes, Barbour (9, pi ) ; Cockerell (28). “Kills and eats rat-
tlesnakes”, Saintleven (100). Ground hornbill, Bucorax cafer, (Africa) eats snakes, Fitzsimons (43,
Vol. 2, p. 126) ; Ingersoll (65, p. 16).
Bush kingfisher, Halycon, eats snakes, Fitzsimons (43, Vol. 2, p. 24). Laughing jackass, Dacelo gigas, eats snakes, Ingersoll (65, Vol. 2, p.
24) ; Wood (122, Vol. 2, p. 170).
Kollers, Coracias and Eurostomus, (Africa) eats snakes, Fitzsimons (43, Vol. 2, p. 22). M agpie, Pica pica hudsonica, killed a rattlesnake, Boulder Daily Cam- era, Boulder, Colorado, June 4, 1895. California jay, Aphelocoma californica, eats snakes, Beal (15). Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos, eats snakes, Barrows (11, pp. 424-425). Harmless snakes, Barrows and Schwartz (10, pp. 49-50). Milk snake, Lampropeltis, Wilson (121, p. 124). Pied crow, Corvus scapulatus, (Africa) eats snakes, Fitzsimons (43, Vol. 2, p. 1). White-necked raven, ringhals, Corvulture albicollis, eats snakes, Fitz-
simons (43, Vol. 2, p. 1) ; Wilson (121, p. 124).
Cowbird, Molothrus ater, nestling ate garter snake, Friedmann (47, p. 270). Northern Shrike, Lanius borealis, eats snakes, Blanchan (17). Loggerhead Shrike, Lanius Zudoviciunus, killed garter snake, ate DeKay’s snakes, Storeria dekayi, Judd (67, pp. 100, 102). Eats snakes, garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, and a snake of the genus Lepthophis, impales snakes on barbed-wire fence, Judd (68, p. 21). White-rumped Shrike, Lank ludovicianus excubitorides, eats snakes,
Cockerell (28).
106 The^ Wilson^ Bulletin-June,^1932
Horned palm viper, L ac^ hesis^ schlegelii,^ young^ birds,^ Ditmars^ (36, p. 348). Ringhals, Sipedon haem’achates, (a South African cobra) birds and eggs, New Internat. Encyc. (89). Cobra de cape110 or hooded cobra, Naja tripudians, young poultry and birds, New Internat. Encyc. (89). Spitting cobra, Black-necked cobra, chickens, struck hen in nest-box, Loveridge (73, pp. 109, 112). Cobras, birds and eggs, Ditmars (36, p. 297). Green mamba, Dendraspis angusticeps, probably killed black-bellied bishop bird, Pyromelana nigriventris, on nest, Loveridge (73, p. 115). Genus Elachistadon, especially fitted for egg-eating, Boulenger (22,
p. 393) ; Ingersoll (64, p. 57).
Egg-eater, Dasypeltis scabra, eggs and nestlings, Fitzsimons (43, Vol.
1, p. 240). Eggs, Wood (122, Vol. 3, p. 135) ; Forbush (44, p.
Boomslang, Dispholidus typus, eggs, young and adults, Fitzsimons (43, Vol. 1, p. 240). Boomslang, Bucephalus capensis, birds, Wood (122, p. 136). Bird snake, Theltornis kirtlandii, eggs, young and adults, Fitzsimons (43, Vol. 1, p. 240).
Spreading adder, Heterodon contortrix, bird, Netting (88, p. 26) ;
Surface (114, p. 185). Birds and eggs, Forbush (44, p. 45). Western hognose, HeteroNdon nasicus, ate adult meadowlark, Branson (23, p. 377). Blacksnake, black racer, Coluber constrictor constrictor, birds, Ditmars (36, p. 255). Birds and eggs, Ditmars (37, p. 282). Birds, eggs and young, DeKay (35, p. 36). Birds 4% of food, birds’ eggs
4$%, Surface (114, p. 169) ; Forbush (44, pp. 43-44). Catbird
eggs, Morris (83, p. 253) ; Spencer (106, p. 108). Young cat-
bird, Burroughs (24, pp. 27-30). Wren, quail eggs, Spencer (106, p. 108). Young Florida blue jay, Nicholson (90, Vol. 29, p. 190). Young blue jay, Linsdale (72, p. 557). Small birds, adult robin, Storer (112, p. 226).
Blue racer, Coluber constrictor jlaviventris, eggs of red-wing black-
bird, Agelaius phoeniceus, (^) in nest of cardinal, Cardinalis car- dinal& eggs of vireo, and of red-winged blackbird, Nauman (86, pp.330, 331). Eggs of bobwhite, Colinus virginianus, prairie chicken, Tympanu,chus americanus, and fowls, Morse (84, p. 128).
Birds and eggs, Wood (122, Vol. p. 132) ; Force (46, p. 31) ;
Netting (88, p. 26).
Snakes vs. Birds: Birds vs. Snakes 107
Racer, Coluber semilineatus, young Woodhouse jay, Cyanocitta wood- house& Stejneger (109, p. 155). Coachwhip, Masticophis flagellum frenatum, small birds, Ruthven (98, p. 576). Striped racer, Coluber lateralis, young house finch, Law (71, p. 179). Racers, genus Zamensis, feed principally^ on mammals^ and^ birds, Boulenger, G. A. (22, p. 323). Coachwhip, Masticophis flagellum flagellum, English sparrows, Force
(46, p. 30). Birds and eggs, Ditmars (37, p. 287) ; Hurter (63, p.
173). Attacked a hawk, Wood (122, Vol. 3, p. 132).
Coachwhips, Masticophis, birds, Ditmars (37, p. 287) ; Ditmars (36,
p. 257). Young quail, Stoddard (110). Dryophis prasinus, small birds, Boulenger, G. A. (22, p. 369). Elaphe spiloides, eggs of guinea fowl, Hurter (63, p. 182). Emory’s coluber, Elaphe laeta, small birds, Ditmars (37, p. 299). Davis Mountain coluber, Elaphe subocularis, small birds, Ditmars (37, p. 300). Corn snake, Elaphe guttata, quail, two instances, Ditmars (37, pp. 301-302). Birds, Wood (122, Vol. 3, p. 130). Pilot blacksnake, Elaphe obsoleta, hens’ eggs, flickers, quail and other birds, Hurter (63, p. 180). Killed a large horned owl in cap- tivity, Blatchley (20). Birds^ and^ eggs,^ Branson^ (23,^ p,^ 388). Birds’ eggs, chickens, robins, red-winged blackbirds, crow black- bird, sparrows, eggs 2$%, birds 28% of food, Surface (114, p.
161) ; Ditmars (37, p. 312) ; Forbush (45, p. 41) ; Netting (88,
p. 26). Canary, Touissant (116, p. 222). Barn swallows, can- ary, Forbush (45, pp. 4<2-43). Chicken snake, Elaphe obsoleta confinis, birds, young chickens and eggs, Hurter (63, p. 181). Birds, Corrington (31, p. 73). Lindheimer’s coluber, Elaphe obsoleta linclheimeri, hens’ eggs, Dit- mars (37, p. 306). Contents of birds’ nests, Garman (50, p. 291). Banded chicken snake, Elaphe quadrivittata, chickens, hens’ eggs, Dit- mars (37, pp. 311-312). “Habit of stealing chickens from roost”, Wood (122, Vol. 3, p. 131). Fox snake, Elaphe vulpinus, sparrows, birds and their eggs, Ditmars
(37, p. 298) ; Surface (114, p. 162). Eggs of common tern, Lyon
(75, p. 186) ; Williams (75, p. 186).
All culubers, birds and eggs, Ditmars (37, p. 294) ; Boulenger, G. A.
(22, p. 330). Indigo snake, blue gopher snake, Drymarchon corais couperi, Ditmars (37, p. 278).
