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- Chapter 7: Social Differentiation and Stratification o What is differentiation/ stratification ▪ How people vary according to social characteristics - We all are different - How? Desk job vs. field job, team work vs solitary work - Sociologists do not rank people high or low based on differentiation - People are ranked according to the scarce resources they control - Scarce resources? o Money/property & social status/prestige o What is social stratification? ▪ The organization of society in which people are ranked according to their WEALTH or PRESTIGE - Is a hierarchical structure of society o Inequality and SS are often used interchangeably ▪ Inequality: exists b/w any of 2 or more individuals/groups - Ex. Inequality b/w white & people of color ▪ SS applies to how a particular society is organized - Ex. How American/European societies are organized/structured, how communist societies were organized in USSR o SS influences every part of our lives: ▪ Ex. - Living status (neighborhood) - School (public or private) - Work (blue or white collar) ▪ Does SS only exist in Modern society? Let’s look at the typology of the society first! o Types of Society ▪ Hunting and gathering ▪ Horticultural ▪ Agrarian ▪ Industrial o Hunting and gathering ▪ 50 or less people ▪ live on what they can find to eat ▪ nomadic, always in search for food ▪ no surplus food ▪ everybody does the same work, no D/of/L ▪ May get special respect (age, wisdom, skill, magical power) but no authority, no power ▪ *almost none to little differentiation/ stratification o Horticultural societies: ▪ Small tool (digging, irrigation, fertilization
▪ Reliable food source ▪ Sometimes food source ▪ Remain in one location, build shelter, make tools ▪ Occasionally fight wars to protect lands ▪ D/of/L occurs, based on specialization: warriors, ceremonial/political leaders ▪ Capture slaves and enforce their edicts ▪ *Stratification system develops, but not extensively o Agrarian societies: ▪ Sophisticated technology ▪ Ability to work with iron (Metallurgy) ▪ Usage of plows and firearms ▪ Cultivate faster (domesticate animals and good technology) ▪ Exponentially increase production level ▪ Surplus value (excessive amount of crop) ▪ Heavy weapons (conquer lands, develop armies) ▪ * starting point of huge SS ▪ Conquer lands and slaves, develop armies, control farmers. Social classes develop:
- Serfs (farmers who are controlled by the states) - States (the rich families) - Merchants (who trade variety of goods) ▪ Birth of BOURGEOISE & PROLETERIAT - Terminology by Karl Marx o Industrial society: ▪ Average peoples’ standard of living increased ▪ Overall stratification is not as high as Agrarian society ▪ Think about mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity ▪ Currently-post industrial society ▪ Pre-industrial society: purest forms of a class systems – wealth (only determinant) ▪ Post industrial: SS aligned with level of education ▪ 3 closely related scarce resource that are sources of Power (ability to control others’ behavior w/o their consent) - ex. Of power: political affiliation, club member o 1. Class, 2. Status, 3. Party o Source of Power: Class, status, Party ▪ Social class: - Class system was developed in industrial society - Depends on wealth, power, and life chances (opportunities ppl have to improve their income) to acquire wealth o Ex: ppl from upper middle class vs lower class ▪ Social status:
- Education is now another important determinant - But we are not conscious about our class o Class consciousness ▪ Awareness that different classes exist in society and people’s fate are tied to the fate of their whole class ▪ Dramatic decline in the class awareness and in the class consciousness (Gordon Marshall, 1980) ▪ If we don’t have CC, what happens? ▪ Should gov. guarantee good jobs? - 1930s: working class -> inequality exists and gov. should do something to decrease inequality (mostly workers’ demand) - 1960s: poverty was an issue. Gov. should increase opportunity for the poor - 1980s: uninterested in gov. action. Individuals’ responsibility - 2012-present: social inequality – major problem o Poverty: ▪ How it’s measured? ▪ Family of 2 adults + 2 children (not living in a farm) -> poverty line is $24,339 (2017). ▪ Single parent family: $18, ▪ The official poverty rate 12.7% in the USA (2017), 13.3% (2015), 14.8% (2014) ▪ *Poverty is decreasing but still a major issue for parents, particularly for single mothers - Why? - B/c women with children are more likely suffer from poverty than men o Feminization of poverty: ▪ This phenomenon is called Feminization of poverty: - Women represent disproportionate percentages of the world’s poor - A global issue ▪ Factors for FOV: - Higher divorce rate and single motherhood (worldwide) - Average wage hasn’t increased since 1972 - Wage gap b/w men and women is huge o Underpaid. $50k for male, 38,500 for female o Women make 77% of what men make o Natural disaster and Inequality: “No such thing as natural disaster”-Pierre Louis 2017 ▪ Hurricane Katrina (worst & costliest hurricane, August 2005) - Trapped by flood water: mostly poor, black people of NO - Mandatory evacuation, but poor people failed to evacuate - No coordination by the NOLA gov. - Accused the victim
- Most Americans live from paycheck to paycheck ▪ Inequality is responsible for the devastating effects ▪ Inadequate infrastructure, slow response rate ▪ Grusky & Ryo’ (2006): “the dirty little secret”: disaster reveal injustices in the society ▪ Sherrow Pinder (2009): interrelation of race and class inequality deeply embedded in America’s political, economic,, and social structure
▪ Con. Theorists:
- Criticize the notion that education can change people’s fate o Ex. Women and people of color - Race and gender - Need to create equal opportunities through changes in SS o Who is more likely to succeed than others? ▪ Blau and Duncan (1967): Status attainment model - Occupation/income – directly affected by educational attainment - Other factors: family background, encouragement by others - Another way to see status attainment model: o Using these capitals effectively – upward mobility possible - What are those capitals? o Types of capital: ▪ Economic capital: income ▪ Human capital: occupation and education ▪ Social capital: network, norms, and trust ▪ Cultural capital: values, attitudes, knowledge
- Chapter 8: Race o Racial group: ▪ Socially defined ▪ Inherited physical characteristics ▪ Facial features, body type, skin color, hair texture, etc. ▪ Early study overlooked the “socially defined” idea, stressed on biological/physical attributes ▪ Race is primarily a social construct than biological (sociologists and anthropologist) o Self Definition of Race ▪ First time in census: - Self-defined race: in 2000 – 1 to 19 possible groups - 2010: 9 million, 2.9% of the total population, people multiracial o Ethnic groups: unique cultural traits, ascribed membership, sense of community, territoriality ▪ Dress, language, religion, speech pattern - Subcultures ▪ Sense of peoplehood (Gordon, 1964) ▪ Like race, ethnicity is socially created and maintained o Minority groups: ▪ Not in number but in terms of power and privilege ▪ Stereotypes: - Over simplified beliefs - Often change - Develops out of fear - Media - Rarely use to create positive image o Racial and ethnic profiling ▪ Not in terms of power and privilege - Ex. South Africa (white: one-fifth of the total pop.) ▪ The most highly valued norms in the US - White Anglo Saxon protestant (WASP) ▪ Elderly poor, Southern whites, disabled, LGBTQ, people of color are considered minorities o Attitudes and Behaviors ▪ Stereotypes: oversimplified beliefs about ALL members in a particular group/community ▪ Persist over time, often change - Ex. Muslims ▪ Developments out of fear ▪ Media ▪ Rarely use to create positive image ▪ Strong influence on children
▪ moral rationale ▪ reconcile values and behavior of the dominants ▪ discourage the subordinates challenging the system ▪ defends the existing D of L ▪ “just” cause o 6 ways that racism is dysfunctional ▪ uneven distribution of resources ▪ increase social problems ▪ waste of time and resources ▪ unstable diplomatic relations ▪ discourage social change ▪ disrespect for the law o Racism on 2 levels ▪ Individual racism ▪ Institutional racism: when racist ideologies are embodied the folkways, mores, and legal structures o Patterns of Group Interaction ▪ More multiracial/ethnic people, more diversity in communication ▪ Dominant group -> power, domination –> inequality
- Ex. Black Britons in Britain (2nd^ class), Asian Britons (language problem), Indian/Pakistani/West Indian Britons (subordinate position) - Ex. Northern Ireland (protestants-catholic conflict), Israel (Jews- Muslims conflict) o Donald Noel (1975) ▪ 3 conditions for ethnic stratification - ethnocentrism - competition for resources - inequalities in power o Major pattern of group interaction ▪ Ethnic antagonism ▪ Integration and assimilation ▪ Cultural pluralism ▪ Segregation ▪ Mass expulsion and genocide o Ethnic antagonism ▪ Mutual opposition, conflict, hostility (racism, prejudice, discrimination in all levels) ▪ The best known theory for ethnic antagonism: SLM theory (Bonacich,
▪ When the price of labor for the same work differs by ethnic group, a 3 way conflict develops - Employers know that it is possible to have cheap labor
- Dominant ethnic group demands higher wages (including fringe benefits) -> employers cost increases - Works that were originally done by dominant group, now done by any ethnic group -> cheap labor o Integration and Assimilation ▪ Ethnicity become insignificant, all can freely and fully participate in socio-economic political mainstream (integration) ▪ Individuals/group leave their own tradition/identify and become a part to a different group (assimilation) ▪ The best known theory for assimilation: - Theory of race relation cycle (Robert Park, Uni of Chicago) ▪ Assimilation goes through 3 stages: - Competition (for job, livelihoods): ex: shrimp business by Viet - Accommodation (living separately): ex. China Town, Little India - Assimilation (adopting mainstream culture) ex. Intermarriage o Cultural Pluralism: a+b+c = a+b+c ▪ Each group maintain their own culture, sub system, and institution - Ex. Fashion, hair style, language, food habit – African American or Asian American o Segregation ▪ Physical & social separation ▪ Significant division: people of color-inner cities, whites – at the suburbs - De jure segregation: segregation by law? - De facto segregation: segregation by fact? o Mass Expulsion and Genocide ▪ Expelling minorities/powerless form their homeland (mass expulsion) ▪ Practice of deliberately destroying a whole race/ethnic group (genocide) - Ex. WWII o Assimilation in the US ▪ 2 Models - Melting pot vs Anglo conformity - A+B+C=D (melting pot): all contributes little bit -> “American” (D) - A+B+C=A (Anglo conformity): minority completely loses their identity-> adopts dominant culture (A) - *MP is a myth? **- *** Is it possible to be color-blind? o Major Groups: ▪ Hispanic Americans ▪ African Americans ▪ Asian Americans ▪ Native Americans ▪ WASPS and white ethnic Americans
o An Experiment on Race, Class, and Gender Sterotypes ▪ “people of color, men and lower class individuals are disproportionately represented in our justice system” ▪ The author argues:
- They don’t commit more crimes but experience more discrimination in the justice system - Lack of resources that forces individuals and communities (color, men, lower income) – “more vulnerable to attention of police, prejudice, and bias”. - Prison industrial complex (13th^ is a documentary) ▪ (Davis, 2017) o SLM Theory: ▪ Proposed by Edna Bonachich ▪ Employers (white capitalists) aim to have cheap and docile labor force ▪ Higher paid (primary labor market) are threatened by cheap labor (secondary labor market) ▪ If ‘plm’ are strong enough, they prevent the replacement by ‘exclusion’ movement OR ‘caste system’ - ‘exclusion’ movement o immigration laws, higher taxes - ‘caste system’ o aristocratic labor vs dirty labor
- Chapter 10: Age Differentiation o Age ▪ Refers to numbers of year since birth ▪ Ascribed status ▪ No choice/control ▪ Different social expectation at different phases o Age Norms ▪ Expectation about the behavior considered appropriate for people of a given age - Ex. Babies: crawl, teenager: attend schools, etc. o Aging: Age related process and change ▪ 3 types: - Biological: physical appearance o Ex. Gray hair, wrinked skin. - Physiological changes o Ex. Puberty, menopause - Social: influenced by chronological age, deals with social roles, the life course, and age norms. o Ex. (for typical heterosexual couple) marriage – having kids, raising kids, empty-nest stage, progression through middle age into old age…etc. o Ageism: ▪ Prejudice and discrimination based on age ▪ (like racism and sexism) beliefs about the inherent inferiority of a group that are used to justify individual/institutionalized discrimination ▪ based on myths ▪ what are the myths? o Myths about old age: ▪ Kart (2000) list 10 misconceptions about old age and the aging process - Senility (world’s leaders and famous figures had significant contribution at 70s and 80s) - Old people are miserable (58% of 70+ would be very happy to live another 10 years, Schilling, 2006) - Loneliness (except widows, other group of older people don’t find loneliness problematic) - Health problems (problems at work place. Aged people aren’t hired) - Victimization (assault and robbery, older people are lesser) - Poverty (8.9% householders age 65+ below poverty line in 2009 vs 20.7% people 18 and under) - Dependence and incompetence (89% men and 81% women age 75+ live alone/with spouse) - Postretirement health decline (little empirical support)
▪ Activity theory (lemon and Colleagues, 1977) ▪ Social exchange theory ▪ Conflict theory o Modernization theory (Cowgill & Homes, 1972) ▪ Increasing modernization, decreasing status of elderly ▪ Fewer leadership roles in community ▪ Diminished power and influence ▪ These are the consequence of the process of modernization:
- Scientific technology (high tech new job for youth) - Urbanization (frequent mobility, separation from older gen.) - Literacy and mass education (contemporary skills) - Health technology (declining birth rates and longer lives) - *retirement encouraged ▪ Criticism - Modernization is a vague term - Westernization - Japan, modernized, elderly people have high status (Keefer, 1990) o Disengagement theory (Cumming & Henry, 1961) ▪ Disengagement/withdrawal from work and society ▪ Prepare for the end of life ▪ Opportunity for young ▪ Societal support needed ▪ Disengagement – not mutually satisfying, but inevitable (Atchley, 1991) o Symbolic Interaction Theory (how you define yourself, others, meaning to events) ▪ How people define the aging processes ▪ Status (wisdom, experience) ▪ Inter-generational-interaction ▪ Martial satisfaction and family relationship - Ex. South Asian o Activity Theory (Lemon and Colleagues) ▪ Based on Sym.I theory ▪ Contrast to disengagement theory ▪ Best coping mechanism: being active ▪ Part time job, hobbies ▪ Lemon and Colleagues - 400+ respondents - mixed result: informal activity (interaction w/ friends/relatives) = life satisfaction, formal activity (voluntary activities) didn’t = life satisfaction ▪ why? Economic condition, death of spouse/child ▪ Sociologists: knowing large number of people may/may not be enough for life satisfaction o Social Exchange Theory (Dowd)
▪ Main issue (20th^ century industrial society): decreasing power ▪ Economic and social independence ▪ Less bargaining power ▪ Today’s society, based on exchange relationship o Conflict Theory ▪ Like other minority group ▪ Stereotyped ▪ Unfair treatment, labor market, housing, etc. ▪ Public awareness, campaign, social reform
- Ex. Gray panthers (1971) - Chapter 13: Education o Education ▪ Social institution (LSU – organization. Religion – Institution, Church/Mosque – organization) ▪ Deals with the transmission of skills and knowledge to its members. ▪ Also transmits social values and norms o Structural Functional Theory ▪ 1. Overt - Function o Teaching o Testing o Transmit new behavior, skills o Creation of new knowledge o Decrease poverty ▪ 2. Covert - Function o Prolonged adolescent ▪ Agro-based societies-adulthood comes faster, manual labor required ▪ Industrial societies-children are relieved from work- roles - Mostly focus on education - Mandatory school attendance til 16 - Dependency on parental support continues for even 2 decades longer ▪ 13.5% of 20-30 year olds live w/ their parents ▪ 3. Age segregation - Socialize with same age people o Age-segregated subculture evolves, eating habit, dress-up, language pattern ▪ 4. Child care: - Both parents employed, 9 am-3pm (normally) almost 6/ hours schools take care of the children
▪ egalitarianism: equal treatment for all students ▪ standardization: contents, procedures, appearance are same ▪ individualism: students’ uniqueness o Gender Dynamics ▪ Statistics
- 2012: average scores in math literacy 368 Peru (min), 613 score Shanghai-CHN - The US average math score (481) was lower than the avg. for all OECD countries (494) - Science literacy: avg. scores -373 in Peru, 580 in Shanghai-CHN. The US avg is (497)- OK o Failure of American Public Schools: ▪ 1. Financial problems. Low budget, Teacher’s low salary ▪ 2. Inadequate curriculum. More and more review ▪ 3. Self fulfilling prophecy. Low expectation from the students. o Initiatives: ▪ Magnet schools ▪ Vouchers: - New management: teachers are left out form the decision making process, limited bilingual education, paying teacher based on their merit o NCLB (No Child Left Behind) ▪ 2002 ▪ Establish testing system ▪ schools must demonstrate adequate yearly progress (AYP) - lose federal funding - English & Math Proficiency ▪ If school cannot show progress, gets branded as unsafe or persistently dangerous ▪ Parents may choose different school for children ▪ Criticism: - Study for test “teach to the test” - Students of color o Prgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA) ▪ One of the biggest cross-natiaonal tests ▪ Every 3 years measures reading ability, math, and science literacy ▪ Total 71 countries in 2015 ▪ USA-38th^ in Math, 24 th^ in Science ▪ Source: Pew research center, 2015. o How the US compares on Science, Math, and Reading Scores ▪ Avg. scores of 15 year olds taking the 2015 program for International Student Assessment (Pew Research 2015) ▪ OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. 34 countries
o Historical Perspectives on Education ▪ Education: teach a body of knowledge to students? Or, ▪ Generate new knowledge? Or, ▪ Does it maintain stratification system in the society? ▪ Sociologist find:
- Education was focused on serving selected group of higher- status people - So, occupational training was important o Historical Background ▪ Puritans: (member of a group of English Protestants of the late 16 th^ and 17 th^ century) education was important ▪ 1636: - founded Harvard College to educate ministers - male students, age 12- - subjects: morals & ethics ▪ 1819: - establish University of Virginia by Thomas Jefferson - Broader goal - Modern language, science, mathematics o Occupation Training ▪ 1850: - Importance of OT - Federal gov. took initiatives - A&M schools were established - Provided land grants - Developed public universities ▪ Previously: Medicine, law, dentistry-learned through apprenticeship, no formal training ▪ 1876: - John Hopkins was established - Scientific curriculum - Systematically support advanced research - Publications of research findings and disseminate it with others - Now students got professional skills o Compulsory Public Education ▪ Developed in 18 th^ century and 19 th^ century ▪ Mandatory education until certain age ▪ One goal: educate immigrants ▪ Learned English, so that easy assimilation possible ▪ Opposed by: 1. Religious leaders 2. Tax payers 3. Farmers ▪ Catholic religious leaders-opposed public education ▪ Afraid of-public education would be Protestant education ▪ Tax payers: why would I spend my money to educate others?
