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Anatomy and Function of the Cardiovascular and Gastrointestinal Systems, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Life Sciences

San José State University (SJSU)Life Sciences

An in-depth exploration of the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal systems, discussing their structures, functions, and interactions. The cardiovascular system, responsible for internal transport of substances, is composed of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. The gastrointestinal system, responsible for digestion and elimination, includes the organs from the mouth to the anus. Topics such as the circulatory cycle, the structure and functions of various blood vessels, the role of the lymphatic system, and the functions of the gastrointestinal organs.

Typology: Study Guides, Projects, Research

2018/2019

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The Respiratory System

•Upper Respiratory System:

oNose

oNasal cavity

oMouth

oPharynx

oLarynx

•Lower Respiratory System:

oTrachea

oLungs

oBronchial tree

•Airway:

oNose

oNasal cavity

oMouth

oPharynx

oLarynx

oTrachea

oBronchi

oBronchial network

▪Airway is lined with cilia ! trap microbes and debris and sweep them

back into the mouth

•Lungs:

oHouse the bronchi and bronchial network ! terminate into alveoli

oAlveoli ! allow for gas exchange with the blood capillaries

oRight lung: 3 lobes

oLeft lung: 2 lobes – to leave room for the heart

▪Surrounded by the pleural membrane ! reduce friction between surfaces

when breathing

•Respiratory muscles:

oDiaphragm- dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal

cavities

oIntercostal muscles- located between the ribs

•Main function:

oSupply the body with oxygen and rid it of carbon dioxide

•Respiratory system filters air (air is warmed, moistened, and filtered as it goes through

the nasal passages before reaching the lungs.)

•R.S. is responsible for speech (air goes through the throat passes the larynx ! vibrates

and produces sound before going to the trachea

•R.S. is vital in cough production

•Functions in the sense of smell ! chemoreceptors in the nasal cavity respond to airborne

chemicals

•Maintains acid-base homeostasis

oHyperventilation increases blood pH during acidosis

oHypoventilation decreases blood pH during alkalosis

•During the breathing process: the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract to expand

the lungs

oInspiration (inhalation):

▪Diaphragm- contracts and moves down ! increasing the size of the

chest cavity

▪Intercostal muscles- contract and ribs expand ! increasing the size of

the chest cavity

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The Respiratory System

(^) Upper Respiratory System: o (^) Nose o (^) Nasal cavity o (^) Mouth o (^) Pharynx o (^) Larynx
(^) Lower Respiratory System: o (^) Trachea o (^) Lungs o (^) Bronchial tree
(^) Airway: o (^) Nose o (^) Nasal cavity o (^) Mouth o (^) Pharynx o (^) Larynx o (^) Trachea o (^) Bronchi o (^) Bronchial network ▪ Airway is lined with cilia^!^ trap microbes and debris and sweep them back into the mouth
(^) Lungs: o (^) House the bronchi and bronchial network! terminate into alveoli o (^) Alveoli! allow for gas exchange with the blood capillaries o (^) Right lung : 3 lobes o (^) Left lung : 2 lobes – to leave room for the heart ▪ Surrounded by the pleural membrane^!^ reduce friction between surfaces when breathing
(^) Respiratory muscles: o Diaphragm - dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities o Intercostal muscles - located between the ribs
(^) Main function: o Supply the body with oxygen and rid it of carbon dioxide
(^) Respiratory system filters air (air is warmed, moistened, and filtered as it goes through the nasal passages before reaching the lungs.)
(^) R.S. is responsible for speech (air goes through the throat passes the larynx! vibrates and produces sound before going to the trachea
(^) R.S. is vital in cough production
(^) Functions in the sense of smell! chemoreceptors in the nasal cavity respond to airborne chemicals
(^) Maintains acid-base homeostasis o Hyperventilation increases blood pH during acidosis o Hypoventilation decreases blood pH during alkalosis
(^) During the breathing process: the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract to expand the lungs o Inspiration (inhalation): ▪ Diaphragm - contracts and moves down^!^ increasing the size of the chest cavity ▪ Intercostal muscles - contract and ribs expand^!^ increasing the size of the chest cavity

(^) Chest cavity volume increases! pressure inside decreases (high pressure to low pressure) o (^) Expiration (exhalation): ▪ Diaphragm and intercostal muscles^ relax^!^ size of chest cavity decreases! forces air out of the lungs.
(^) Medulla Oblongata o (^) Portion of the brain stem that controls breathing

▪ Monitors the level of carbon dioxide in the blood (when levels are too

high the breathing rate increases)

▪ Carry blood back to the heart

(^) Blood: o (^) Carries raw materials to cells and removes waste products o (^) Stabilize internal pH and has various infection fighters o (^) Adult human has about 5 quarts of blood o (^) Consists of 4 things: ▪ Red blood cells- transport oxygen / form in the bone marrow ▪ White blood cells- defend the body against infection & removes waste - (^) Types of WBC: o (^) Lymphocytes o (^) Monocytes o (^) Neutrophils o (^) Eosinophils o (^) Basophils ▪ Platelets- fragments of stem cells / function in blood clotting ▪ Plasma- over half of blood volume/serves as a solvent/ contains plasma proteins, ions, glucose, amino acids, hormones, and dissolved gases
(^) Heart: o (^) Muscular pump made up of cardiac muscle tissue o (^) Has 4 chambers; each has an atrium and ventricle o (^) Halves are separated by the AV valve located between the ventricle and artery leading away from the heart o (^) Valves move blood in a single direction to prevent backwash into the chambers o (^) Has its own circulatory system with its own coronary arteries o (^) Functions: ▪ Contracting and relaxing o (^) Atrial contraction! fills the ventricles o (^) Ventricular contraction! empties the ventricles, forcing circulation ▪ This is known as the cardiac cycle o Complex electrical system controls the heartbeat as cardiac muscle cells produce and conduct electrical signals (self-exciting)
(^) Cardiac cycle: o Consists of diastole and systole phases (first and second phases) ▪ First diastole phase- - (^) Blood flows through the superior and inferior vena cava! Heart is relaxed! blood flows through the right atrium through the Atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve! right ventricle! (SA node generates electrical signals, carried by the Purkinje fibers to the rest of the atrium)! stimulate and contract and fill the right ventricle with blood! (SA node signals go through to the AV node)! signals right ventricle to contract and initiates the first systole phase. ▪ First systole phase- - (^) Tricuspid valve closes! pulmonary semilunar valve opens! blood is pumped out of the pulmonary arteries to the lungs ▪ Second diastole phase- - (^) Blood returns from the lungs! fills the left atrium! SA node triggers the mitral valve to open! blood fills the left ventricle ▪ Second systole phase- - (^) Mitral valve closes! aortic semilunar valve opens! left ventricle contracts! blood is pumped out of the aorta to the body
(^) Circulatory system includes: o Coronary circulation- flow of blood to heart tissues

▪ Blood enters the Coronary arteries which branch off the aorta, supplying major arteries, which enter the heart with oxygenated blood! deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium through cardiac veins, that empty into the coronary sinus o (^) Pulmonary circulation- flow of blood between the heart and lungs ▪ Deoxygenated blood flows from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary arteries! oxygenated blood flows back to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins o Systemic circulation- flow of blood to the entire body ▪ Blood exits the left ventricle through the aorta (branches into carotid, subclavian, common iliac, and renal arteries)! blood returns to the heart (jugular, subclavian, common iliac, and renal veins)! blood empties into the superior and inferior vena cava o Portal circulation- flow of blood from the digestive system to the liver and to the heart o Renal circulation- flow of blood between the heart and the kidneys

(^) Arterial blood pressure: o Transports oxygen poor blood into the lungs and oxygen rich blood to the body tissues o (^) Arteries! arterioles (contract and expand): where adjustments are made in blood delivery to specific areas o (^) Capillary beds ▪ Diffusion sites for exchanges between blood and intestinal fluid ▪ Has the thinnest wall of any blood vessel; w/ single layer of endothelial cells. ▪ Capillaries!^ venules!^ veins o Veins: transport blood from the body tissues back to the heart ▪ Walls are thin and have smooth muscle ▪ Function as blood volume reserves

The Gastrointestinal System

(^) Functions with the following ways: o (^) Movement- mixes and passes nutrients and eliminates waste o (^) Secretion- enzymes, hormones, and other substances necessary for digestion o (^) Digestion- chemical breakdown of nutrients into smaller unites that enter the internal environment ▪ Digestion begins in the mouth with chewing and mixing of nutrients with saliva
(^) Salivary glands are stimulated and secrete saliva
(^) Saliva contains enzymes that initiate the breakdown of starch in digestion
(^) Once food is swallowed it goes from the pharynx into the esophagus on route to the stomach
(^) Stomach- flexible, muscular sac (3 functions) o (^) Mixing and storing food o (^) Dissolving and degrading food via secretions o (^) Controlling passage of food into the small intestine ▪ Protein digestion begins here ▪ Stomach acidity helps breakdown the food and makes nutrients available for absorption
(^) Smooth muscle moves the food down by peristalsis- contracting and relaxing o (^) Move food into the small intestine! where absorption takes place
(^) Liver: o (^) Largest solid organ and largest gland o (^) Made up of 4 lobes: ▪ Right, left, quadrate, and caudate lobes o (^) Its secured to the diaphragm and abdominal walls by 5 ligaments ▪ Falciform (forms a membrane-like barrier between the right and left lobes), coronary, right triangular, left triangular, and round ligaments o (^) Processes all of the blood that passes through the digestive system o (^) Nutrient-rich blood is supplied to the liver by the hepatic portal vein o (^) Hepatic artery supplies oxygen-rich blood o (^) Blood leaves the liver through the hepatic veins o (^) Functional units are called lobules (made up of liver cells) ▪ Blood enters lobules through branches of the portal vein and hepatic artery^! then flows through small channels called sinusoids o Vital functions of the liver: ▪ Production of bile ▪ Production of certain blood plasma proteins ▪ Production of cholesterol ▪ Storage of excess glucose in the form of glycogen ▪ Regulation of amino acids ▪ Processing of hemoglobin (to store iron) ▪ Conversion of ammonia (poisonous to the body) to urea (waste product in urine) ▪ Purification of blood (clears out drugs and other toxins) ▪ Regulation of blood clotting ▪ Controlling infections by boosting immune factors and removing bacteria
(^) Pancreas- long, tapered organ o Wider side (right)- head ▪ Lies near the duodenum o Narrower side (left)-tail ▪ Near the spleen o Made up of exocrine and endocrine tissues ▪ Exocrine tissues- secretes digestive enzymes from ducts that form the main pancreatic duct! connects to the common bile duct near the duodenum

▪ Endocrine tissue- secretes hormones (insulin) into the bloodstream o (^) Blood is supplied to the pancreas from the splenic, gastroduodenal, and superior mesenteric artery o (^) Digestive role: ▪ Assists in the digestion of foods by secreting enzymes that help breakdown many foods (esp. fats and proteins) ▪ Precursors of the enzymes (zymogens) are produced by groups of exocrine cells called acini! converted through a chemical reaction in the gut to the active enzymes (pancreatic lipase and amylase) ▪ Also secretes large amounts of sodium bicarbonate to neutralize the stomach acid that reaches the small intestine ▪ Exocrine functions of the pancreas are controlled by hormones released by the stomach and duodenum when foods present

(^) Flow from the main pancreatic duct (wirsung’s duct)
(^) Small intestine- main absorption organ o (^) Enzymes from liver, pancreas, and stomach are transported to the S.I. ▪ They act on fats, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins o (^) Bile is secreted from the liver; used to break down fats! stored in the gallbladder o Lining of S.I. is covered with villi (tiny absorptive structures that greatly increase the surface area for interaction with chyme (semi-liquid mass of food) ▪ Epithelial cells ay the surface of the villi, called microvilli (further increase the ability of the small intestine to serve as the main absorptive organ)
(^) Large intestine (colon): o Concentrates, mixes, and stores waste material o Attaches to the rectum (short tube for waste disposal) ▪ Nervous system triggers an impulse in the body to expel waste through a muscle sphincter at the end of the anus o Speed of waste removal is influenced by the volume of fiber and undigested wastes. Lack of bulk is linked to a number of disorders.

o (^) Located slightly toward the back of the brain and the top of the head o (^) Responsible for sensory input, and spatial positioning of the body

(^) Occipital lobe o (^) Located at the back of the head just above the brainstem o (^) Responsible for visual input, processing, and output ▪ Specifically nerves from the eyes enter this lobe
(^) Temporal lobe o (^) Located at the left and right sides of the brain ▪ Responsible for all auditory input, processing, and output ▪ Brainstem!^ posterior area of the brain connected to the spinal cord
(^) Important part of respiratory, digestive, and circulatory systems
(^) Include the: o (^) Midbrain ▪ Include the tectum, tegmentum, and the ventral tegmentum ▪ Important part of vision and hearing o (^) Pons ▪ Information is sent across the pons from the cerebrum to the medulla and the cerebellum o (^) Medulla oblongata ▪ Connects the spinal cord to the brain ▪ Has an important role with the ANS in the circulatory and respiratory system
(^) Peripheral nervous system: consists of nerves and ganglia! includes sympathetic nerves that trigger “fight or flight” response
(^) parasympathetic nerves which control basic body function.
(^) Autonomic Nervous System: o (^) Maintains homeostasis! by regulating heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature, and blood pH o (^) Controls the functions of the internal organs, blood vessels, smooth muscle tissues, and glands ▪ Accomplished through the hypothalamus (above the midbrain)
(^) Controls the ANS through the brainstem o (^) Consists of two divisions: ▪ Sympathetic Nervous System!^ controls body’s reaction to extreme, stressful, and emergency situations
(^) Ex) increases the heart rate, signals adrenal glands to secrete adrenaline, triggers dilation of pupils, and slows digestion. ▪ Parasympathetic Nervous System!^ counteracts the Sympathetic NS
(^) Ex) decreases heart rate, signals adrenal glands to stop secreting adrenaline, constricts the pupils, returns the digestion process to normal
(^) Somatic Nervous System: o (^) Controls the 5 senses and the voluntary movement of skeletal muscle o (^) Has all of the neurons that are connected to the sensory organs ▪ Efferent (motor) nerves^!^ bring signals from the central nervous system to the sensory organs and the muscles ▪ Afferent (sensory) nerves^!^ bring signals from the sensory organs and the muscles to the central nervous system o (^) Also performs involuntary movements known as reflex arcs o (^) Reflex: simplest act of the NS

o (^) Reflex arc: simplest nerve pathway which bypasses the brain and is controlled by the spinal cord ▪ Ex) stimulus detected by sensory receptors^!^ message sent along an afferent neuron (to one or more interneurons in the spinal cord)! interneurons transmit the message to efferent neurons! carry message to correct effector (muscle)

The Reproductive System

(^) Male Reproductive System o (^) Produce, maintain, and transfer sperm and semen into female reproductive tracts, as well as producing and secreting male hormones. o (^) External structures: ▪ Penis^!^ contains the urethra; fills with blood and becomes erect allowing for the release of sperm and semen ▪ Scrotum^!^ sac of skin and smooth muscle that houses the testes and keeps them at the proper temperature for spermatogenesis. ▪ Testes^!^ male gonads which produce sperm and testosterone o (^) Internal structures: ▪ Epididymis^!^ stores the sperm as it matures ▪ Vas deferens ▪ Ejaculatory ducts ▪ Urethra ▪ Seminal vesicles^!^ secrete alkaline fluids with proteins and mucus into the ejaculatory duct ▪ Prostate gland^!^ secretes a milky white fluid with proteins and enzymes as part of the semen. ▪ Bulbourethral gland (Cowper’s gland)^!^ secrete a fluid into the urethra to neutralize the acidity in the urethra. o (^) Follicle stimulating hormone: stimulates spermatogenesis o (^) Luteinizing hormone: stimulates testosterone production o (^) Testosterone: responsible for the male sex characteristics
(^) Female Reproductive System o (^) Characterized by changes in the ovaries and the uterine lining o (^) Ovarian cycle: ▪ Follicular phase: FSH stimulates maturation of follicle^!^ secretes estrogen ▪ Ovulation: release of secondary oocyte^!^ induced by surge of LH ▪ Luteal phase: begins with the formation of corpus luteum^!^ secretes progesterone and estrogen,! which inhibits FSH and LH. - (^) Progesterone also maintains the thickness of the endometrium - (^) With no implantation the corpus luteum regresses and the levels of estrogen + progesterone drop.! FSH and LH are no longer inhibited o Uterine cycle: ▪ Proliferative cycle: regeneration of uterine lining ▪ Secretory phase: endometrium becomes increasingly vascular^!^ nutrients are secreted to prepare for implantation ▪ Menstrual phase: if no implantation occurs^!^ the endometrium sheds during menstruation o (^) Pregnancy: ▪ Blastocyst implants in the uterine lining^!^ hCG is released - (^) This hormone prevents the corpus luteum from degrading and continues to produce estrogen + progesterone (necessary to maintain the uterine lining) ▪ By the 2nd^ trimester the placenta secretes enough estrogen and progesterone to sustain pregnancy - (^) Estrogen increases - (^) Progesterone decreases o (^) Parturition (birth): ▪ Birth is preceded by increased levels of fetal glucocorticoids - (^) Which act on the placenta to increase estrogen and decrease progesterone

▪ Stretching of the cervix stimulates the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland

(^) Oxytocin + estrogen stimulate the release of prostaglandins o (^) Oxytocin + prostaglandins! increase uterine contractions (positive feedback mechanism = birth) o (^) Lactation: ▪ Levels of the hormone prolactin increase
(^) Its effect on the mammary glands is inhibited by estrogen and progesterone
(^) After birth the levels of estrogen and progesterone decrease, allowing prolactin to stimulate the production of milk ▪ Suckling stimulates the release of oxytocin^!^ ejection of milk.

▪ Consisting of a receptor, control center, and effector

(^) Receptor: sensory cells located in the dermis of the skin
(^) Control center: hypothalamus in the brain
(^) Effector: sweat glands, blood vessels, and muscles (shivering) o (^) Evaporation of sweat cools the body to maintain its tolerance range o (^) Vasodilation of blood vessels near the surface of the skin releases heat into the environment to lower body temperature
(^) Sebaceous glands vs. sweat glands: o (^) Both are exocrine glands ▪ Exocrine glands: secrete substances into ducts o (^) Sebaceous glands: ▪ They’re holocrine glands^!^ secrete sebum (oily mixture of lipids and proteins) ▪ Connected to hair follicles through the hair pore^!^ inhibits water loss from the skin and protects against bacterial and fungal infections o Sweat glands: ▪ Are either eccrine glands or apocrine glands
(^) Eccrine glands: not connected to hair follicles o Activated by elevated body temperature o Located throughout the body (back, neck, forehead) o Secrete a salty solution of electrolytes and water containing sodium chloride, potassium, bicarbonate, glucose, and antimicrobial peptides
(^) Apocrine glands: o Secrete an oily solution containing fatty acids, triglycerides, and proteins ▪ When a person experiences stress or anxiety o Located in the armpits, groin, palms, and soles of feet o Bacteria feed on apocrine sweat and expel aromatic fatty acids, producing body odor.

The Endocrine System

(^) Secretes hormones and other molecules that help regulate the entire body in both short and long term
(^) Hypothalamus and the pituitary gland coordinate to serve as a neuroendocrine control center
(^) Steroid hormones! trigger gene activation and protein synthesis in some target cells
(^) Protein hormones! change the activity of existing enzymes
(^) Eight major endocrine glands: o Adrenal cortex: monitors blood sugar levels; help in lipid and protein metabolism o Adrenal medulla: controls cardiac function; raises blood sugar and controls the size of blood vessels o Thyroid gland: helps regulate metabolism and functions in growth + development o Parathyroid: regulates calcium levels in the blood o Pancreas islets: raises and lowers blood sugar; active in carbohydrate metabolism o Thymus gland: plays a role in immune responses o pineal gland: influence on daily biorhythms and sexual activity o pituitary gland: important role in growth and development
(^) hormones of the hypothalamus and pituitary o hypothalamus: ▪ link between the nervous and endocrine system ▪ located in the brain, superior to the pituitary and inferior to the thalamus ▪ communicates with the pituitary by secreting “releasing hormones” (RH) and “inhibiting hormones” (IH) - (^) GnRH- gonadotropin RH! stimulates anterior pituitary to release LH and FSH - (^) GHRH- growth hormone RH! stimulates anterior pituitary to release GH - (^) GHIH- growth hormone IH (somatostatin)! inhibits the release of GH from anterior pituitary - (^) TRH- thyrotropin RH! stimulates anterior pituitary to release thyrotropin (TSH) - (^) PRH- prolactin RH! stimulates anterior pituitary to release prolactin - (^) PIH- prolactin IH (dopamine)! inhibits the release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary - (^) CRH- corticotropin RH! stimulates anterior pituitary to release ACTH - (^) Oxytocin! targets the uterus, - stimulates contractions; targets the mammary glands – milk secretion - (^) ADH- antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)! targets the kidneys and blood vessels, increases water retention o (^) Pituitary gland ▪ Nicknamed the “master gland” ▪ Located within the Sella turcica of the sphenoid bone, beneath the hypothalamus ▪ Pea-sized gland hangs from a thin stalk called the infundibulum ▪ Consists of an anterior and posterior lobe - (^) Anterior PG hormones: o TSH- thyroid stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)! targets the thyroid – stimulates the secretion of thyroid hormones o (^) ACTH- adrenocorticotropic hormone! targets the adrenal cortex – stimulates the release of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids o (^) GH- growth hormone! targets muscle and bone – stimulates growth

o (^) Adipose tissue- ▪ Leptin^!^ targets brain- suppresses appetite

The Urinary System

(^) Eliminates excess substances and preserves the substances needed by the body
(^) Consists of the kidneys, urinary ducts, and bladder
(^) Kidneys: o (^) Each kidney consists of three layers- ▪ renal cortex: - (^) composed of millions of nephrons (tiny filters of kidneys) o (^) each nephron contains a cluster of capillaries (glomerulus) surrounded by the cup-shaped bowman’s capsule which leads to a tubule ▪ renal medulla ▪ renal pelvis o (^) kidneys receive blood from renal arteries which branch off the aorta o (^) they filter blood, reabsorb needed materials, and secrete wastes + excess water o (^) blood flows from the renal arteries into arterioles into the glomerulus, where its filtered. ▪ The glomerular filtrate enters the proximal convoluted tubule where water, glucose, ions, and other organic molecules are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream o (^) Additional substances such as urea and drugs are removed from the blood in the distal convoluted tubule ▪ Blood pH can be adjusted in the DCT by secretion of hydrogen ions ▪ Unabsorbed materials flow out from the collecting tubules located in the renal medulla to the renal pelvis as urine o (^) Flow of urine- ▪ Ureters^!^ urinary bladder^!^ expelled through urethra

Anatomy and Function of the Cardiovascular and Gastrointestinal Systems, Study Guides, Projects, Research of Life Sciences

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▪ Monitors the level of carbon dioxide in the blood (when levels are too