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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
KEY TERMS: (THINGS IN RED ARE ON STUDY GUIDE)
Human motor development is a process through which we pass during the course of life and an academic field of study Development generally considered to refer to changes we experience as we pass through life. (growth and maturation) Developmentally appropriate age appropriateness and individual appropriateness Age appropriate o Refers to the predictable sequences of growth and development through which most children pass Individual appropriate o Refers to the uniqueness of each child Six elements of developmental change Qualitative o Developmental change is not just more of something Sequential o Certain motor patterns precede others Cumulative
o Behaviors are additive Directional o Development has an ultimate goal Multifactorial o No single factor directs change Individual o Rate of change varies for all people Developmental perspective Not just todays behavior but what preceded the behavior and what will evolve from it. Maturation The qualitative functional changes that occur with age; organizational changes in the function of the organs and the tissues Growth The quantitative structural changes (physical) Cephalocaudal Growth and movement from the head to the tail Proximodistal Growth and movement from the center to the periphery (evidence with human prenatal growth) Differentiation Progression from gross, immature movement to precise, well controlled, intentional movement Integration Similar change that occurs as an individuals movement abilities gradually progress (functioning of systems together)
Preadapted Movement produced from higher brain centers Conscious, voluntary Fundamental Patterns Build on movement skills Includes fundamental locomotors skills, object control, fine motor control Critical to future motor performance Context-Specific Begin to experience one or more peaks in movement skills Life experiences, personal likes and dislikes of movements Skillful Experience and practice Not achieved by all Requires motivation opportunity instruction and practice over the years In general cannot be competent in every skill Compensation Associated with injury: with practice and time may return to previous skill level Aging: inevitable decline, compensate with new skill Maturational Period (1928-1946) Motor development as a primary interest began to emerge and the maturational philosophy predominated. This philosophy held that biological processes were the main influence in shaping human development. Work by Gesel and MeGraw yielded valuable product and process oriented information concerning human movement. Bayley’s scales of motor development, still used today, were a product of this period. These norm-referenced scales charted motor development. Normative/Descriptive Period (1946-1970)
In the mid 40s motor development became dormant In the 1960s a revival began was led by physical educators who were interested I children’s movements and developed norm- referenced standardized tests for measuring motor performance. Kephart’s The Slow Learner in the Classroom (movement increases performance) Not supported by research but will influences professional practice today Perceptual Motor Theory o Biomechanical analysis of movement o Considered Rebirth of motor development Process-Oriented Period (1970-present) Return to studying the processes underlying motor development rather than simply describing change (products). Information processing theory o Thinking of the brain as function much like a computer 1980 Kugler, Kelso, and Turvey prompted interest in dynamical systems theory o examine movement control and coordination as well as seeking explanations to the process of development o a movement pattern can arise from component parts interacting among themselves and the environment even though the pattern was never coded in the CNS Cross-Sectional design subjects from the various treatment or age groups are examined on the same measure once and at the same time. Longitudinal design One group of subjects is observed repeatedly at different ages and different times of measurement Cohort The set of experience a group of subjects brings into the study because of the generation in which they were reared Time-Lag
KEY TERMS:
Psychomotor The domain of human development that involves human movement Movements initiated by an electrical impulse from the higher brain centers Relationship between the mind and human movement Psycho Mind Motor Any human movement Initiated from lower brain Includes reflexes Clinical Method (Piaget) A system of collecting data by question and answer sessions to understand more fully the process of thinking Adaptation (piaget) Adjusting to the demands of the environment and the intellectualization of that adjustment through two complementary acts assimilation and accommodation Assimilation o Process by which children attempt to interpret new experiences based on their present interpretation of the world Accommodation o Individual attempts to adjust existing thoughts structures ro account for new experiences.
Piaget’s Theory (Four Major Stages of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 years) o Intelligence develops as a result of movement actions and their consequences o Six Stages Exercise of Reflexes (birth to 1 month) Earliest form of movement behavior Infant reflexes and repetition Help adapt and modify our behaviors Do not need higher brain centers Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) Increased voluntary movement Consciously create movement Circular Reactions Repeated actions Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) Continuation of primary circular reactions Interaction with the environment gradually expands Begins to integrated vision, hearing, grasping and movement behaviors Can imitate behaviors No object permanence Secondary schemata (8-12 months)
o Walking facilitates language development o Children are unable to think logically o Two substages o Preconceptual (2-4) Ability to use symbols to represent someone or something in the child’s life Pretend play common Egocentrism Flawed thinking (sad flower) Transductive reasoning (missed breakfast) o Intuitive (4-7) Reduced egocentrism Improvement in the use of symbols Child is incapable of “ conservation ” Ability to recognize that certain properties of a substance remain unchanged when the appearance is rearranged Concrete operational (7 to 11) o Follows conservatio n o Enhanced ability to decenter attention from one variable in a problem solving situation o Learning can be enhanced through movement o Seriation An ability to arrange a set of variables by a certain characteristic o Reversibility
Able to mentally modify, organize, or even reverse thought processes o Limited to thinking about objects, events, or situations that are real Formal Operational (11 to 12, early to mid-adolescence) o Ability to consider ideas that are not based on observable objects or experiences o Abstract ideas are possible o Highest stage of cognitive ability o Interpropositional thought Applicable to complex movement Relate one or more parts of a proposition or a situation to another part to arrive at a solution to a problem o Enhanced level of cognitive ability o Hypothetical-deductive reasoning A problem-solving style that allows child to choose between possible solutions and then pick the best one Aids in emotional development and emerging values Postformal Operation Involves more than dealing with larger quantities of information Contextual Perspectives The recognition of factors other than age and their effects on intellectual change across time Implicit Memory Unintentional automatic or without awareness (no decline in adulthood) Explicit memory Deliberate and effortful and is tested by traditional tests of recall or recognition (develops until adulthood)
Less decline when process is a central part of one’s life Even by age 88 – not everyone declines in all aspects of intellect Intellectual Decline o Partial Intellectual decline Decline in some areas Chinese elders are revered Negative thoughts about memory can hamper confidence and affect memory as one grows older o Contextual Perspective Learning and memory depend in par on factors like culture Noncognitive situation factors can affect degree of decline
