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ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Anatomy: is what you see with your eyes in the human body.
Microscopic Anatomy: examines cells and molecules.
▲ Cytology: study of cells.
▲ Histology: study of tissues.
Physiology: is the study of functions of anatomical structures.
*Smallest living is a CELL.
*Smallest organisms is a ATOM.
Levels of Hierarchy
Atom- the most basic complete unit of an element.
Molecule-^ a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction.
Organelles- are cells parts that function within a cell.
Cells- the basic structural unit of an organism from which living things created. Is one individual cell.
Tissues- a group of cells with similar structure that functions together as a unit, but at a lower level than organs.
Organ- a self contained part of an organism that performs specific functions. Is formed by two or more similar tissues.
Organ System- functional groups of organs that work together within the body : circulatory, integumentary, skeletal, reproductive, digestive, urinary, respiratory, endocrine, lymphatic, muscular and nervous.
▲ Humans have 11 Organ Systems.
Cells Structure
- Nucleus- holds the cells DNA in form of chromatin
- Ribosomes- small structures that build proteins “amino acids”.
- Golgi Apparatus- modifies and packages proteins secreted from cell.
- Vacuoles- storage, digestion and waste removal.
- (^) Cytoskeletal- series of rod shaped proteins that provide shape/support cell.
- Microtubules- part of the cytoskeletal.
- Cytosol- liquid material in cell.
- Cell membrane- separate internal and external cellular environment allows material to
enter and exit cell.
- Endoplasmic Reticulum- smooth or rough transport system of the cell.
- Mitochondria- generates ATP powerhouse of the cell. ATP production is called cellular
respiration
Animal Cells
Centrosome- pairs of centrioles involved in mitosis.
Centriole- cylinders involved in cellular division.
Lysosomes-^ the purpose of the lysosome is to digest things. They might be used to digest food or break down the cell when it dies.
Cilia - cause cell to move.
Flagella - whip tail to move cell.
TISSUES:
- Group of CELLS.
- Muscle, Nerve, Epithelial, Connective.
1. Epithelial: (joined together tightly) Example. Skin
2. Connective: (dense, loose, or fatty) Example. Tissue, Cartilage, Tendons, Ligaments, Fat, Blood, Lymph.
▲ It protects and binds body parts.
a. Cartilage: cushions and provides structural support
b. Blood: transport oxygen to cells and removes waste. Also carries hormones and
defends against disease.
c. Bone: (hard) produces red blood cells
3. Muscle: supports and move body
External Nares - the visible ‘nostrils’ that are the entrances into the nasal cavity
The Larynx - air passage that connects the pharynx to the trachea, composed of individual cartilages, mostly hyaline. Commonly called the voice box for its additional function of voice production.
Epiglottis - the only elastic cartilage, blocks entrance to the larynx during swallowing, ensuring food only enters the esophagus.
Lungs - Paired organs that are highly compartmentalized into small air sacs called alveoli. Also contain elastic tissue to facilitate ventilation.
Alveoli – the individual lung compartments where gas exchange with blood occurs.
- Type 2 cells - cuboidal cells that secrete surfactant, which reduces the surface
tension of water to prevent alveolar collapse.
Bronchi – the main passageways directly attached to the lungs.
Bronchioles - small passages in the lungs that connect bronchi to alveoli
Right Lung - divided into upper, middle, and lower lobes by the horizontal fissure and oblique fissure respectively.
Left Lung - divided into upper and lower lobes by the oblique fissure, also has the cardiac notch – an indentation for the heart’s apex.
The Pleurae - a double layer of serous membrane producing serous fluid to reduce friction during lung ventilation/movement.
- Visceral pleura - the serous membrane layer that clings to the lung surface.
- Parietal pleura - the serous membrane that is separated from the lungs, clings to the internal surface of the thoracic body wall.
- Pleural cavity - the space between the parietal and visceral layers filled with serous fluid, which reduces friction and causes pleural membranes to stick together.
Perfusion - The passage of fluid to an organ or a tissue.
Pulmonary Ventilation - the movement of air into and out of the lungs based on the interactions of pressures in and around the body.
- Inspiration - the movement of air into the lungs.
- Expiration - the movement of air out of the lungs.
Tidal volume - The volume of air ventilated during resting breathing.
Inspiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully inhaled beyond tidal.
Expiratory reserve volume - additional air that can be forcefully exhaled beyond tidal.
Residual volume - volume of air always in lungs, prevents lung collapse.
Medulla Oblongata - the breathing control centers of the medulla oblongata of the brainstem control respiration through monitoring carbon dioxide levels of blood pH.
Asthma- A lung disease characterized by inflamed narrowed airways and difficulty breathing.
Cystic Fibrosis – A genetic disorder affects the lungs and other organs characterized by difficulty breathing coughing up sputum and lung infections.
- 4 pulmonary veins- blood returning from lungs.
Right Ventricle
- Receives blood from the right atrium.
- Blood exits into the pulmonary trunk to lungs.
Left Ventricle
- Receives blood from the left atrium
- Blood exits into the aorta to the body.
**Blood only pass through ½ of the heart at a time, and therefore must pass through the heart twice to complete circulation.
Pulmonary Circuit
- The pathway from the heart to the lungs and back.
- Is pumped by the right half of the heart
- Blood leaves –O2 and returns +O
Systemic Circuit
- The pathway from the heart to the body’s tissues and back
- Is pumped by the left half of the heart
- Blood leaves +O2 and returns –O
CIRCULATION
Superior & Inferior Vena Cava --- Right Atrium- Tricuspid Valve- Right Ventricle -- Pulmonary Semi Lunar Valve-- Pulmonary Trunk -- Lungs- Heart- Four Pulmonary Veins---- Left Atrium --- Mitral Valve-- Left Ventricle- Aortic Semilunar Valve-- Aorta
Coronary Circulation- the series of vessels that supply blood flow to the wall of the heart and beginning at the aorta and ending at the right atrium.
Atrioventricular Valves
- Separate an atrium from a ventricle.
- Prevent backflow into the atrium Tricuspid Valve – separates right atrium from right ventricle
Bicuspid Valve – separates left atrium from left ventricle. Also, known as mitral valve.
Sinoatrial Node- in the right atrium, the “pacemaker” whose cells generate the sinus rhythm.
Heart Sounds - the “lub” and “dub”
- Lub- the sound produced by the closure of the AV valves. (mitral and tricuspid
valves)
- Dub- the sound of produced by the closure of the semilunar valves.
Systole - the portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart expels blood “contraction”
Diastole - The portion of the cardiac cycle in which the heart refills with blood “relaxation”
Cardiac Cells
- Large amount of mitochondria for endurance
- Generate electrical impulses.
- Interconnected- fibers are linked and work in unison.
Arteries- blood vessels that deliver blood from the heart to other parts of the body.
Veins- blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart.
Blood
- Connective tissue
- pH- 7.35-7.
- Volume- 4-6L
Functions- Transport of hormones gases and nutrients, etc. Regulation of pH, body temp and water balance. Protection from blood loss and infection.
- Reticular cells – produce the web of reticular fibers (stroma) that support the
lymphoid cells.
Lymph – the protein-rich, interstitial fluid that has entered the lymphatic vessels.
Lacteals – specialized lymphatic capillaries of the small intestine that absorb lymph that is high in fat content, called chyle.
Lymph nodes – the most abundant lymphoid organs, scattered amongst the lymphatic vessels, and clustered in the inguinal, axillary, and cervical regions
- Filter lymph of foreign cells and debris via phagocytes
- Activate the immune system by stimulating lymphocytes
3. Gastrointestinal System (Digestive System)
Structures of the Digestive Tract:
- Alimentary canal - The continuous tube from mouth to anus whose organs perform various digestive functions
- Accessory structures - the additional organs and glands that play a role in digestion
Functions of the Digestive System:
- Ingestion - taking food into the alimentary canal at the mouth.
- Propulsion - the movement of food through the alimentary canal.
- (^) Peristalsis – waves of muscle contraction that propel food.
- Mechanical digestion - physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces.
- Segmentation – contractions of the alimentary canal that mixes food.
- Chemical digestion - food molecules are broken down via enzymes.
- Absorption - transport of digested materials from lumen through an epithelium into the blood or lymph.
- Defecation – removal of indigestible materials through the anus.
Oral cavity - start of the alimentary canal where ingestion occurs. Begins mechanical digestion via chewing ( mastication ) and chemical digestion via enzymes.
- Teeth - bony structures used in mastication.
- Tongue – skeletal muscle used to manipulate food and form a bolus.
- Palate – roof of the oral cavity, hard and soft regions.
- Uvula – extension of the soft palate, blocks the nasopharynx during swallowing.
Salivary glands – paired glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity to moisten food and cleanse the oral cavity.
Saliva – secretion containing salivary amylase which begins chemical digestion of starches. Also contains IgA antibodies and lysozymes to clear potential pathogens.
Pharynx - Begins propulsion, transporting food from the oral cavity to the esophagus, performing the act of deglutition (swallowing)
- Only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx transport food
Deglutition –^ when swallowing, the elevation of the larynx and uvula block the respiratory passages ensuring food enters the esophagus.
Stomach – stores food, performing mechanical digestion via churning and chemical digestion via enzymes.
Chyme – the acidic, paste-like substance passed to the small intestine after about 4 hours.
Regions: The^ cardia^ is nearest to the esophagus, the^ fundus^ is the superior dome, the^ body^ is the central region, and the pylorus is nearest the small intestine
Gastric ulcers – erosion of the stomach wall, typically caused by a bacterium.
Pyloric sphincter – circular muscle regulating chyme movement into the small intestine.
Emulsification – the physical breakdown of large fat globules into smaller fat droplets, thus increasing surface area for enzymatic digestion.
Gall bladder - muscular sac on the posterior surface of the liver that stores and concentrates bile. The gall bladder is drained by the cystic duct.
The Pancreas – gland whose acinar cells produces pancreatic juices containing digestive enzymes such as proteases, lipases, nucleases, and amylases.
Large Intestine (Colon) - transports food from the small intestine to the anus while absorbing water and forming feces.
Ileocecal valve – regulates movement of food from the small to the large intestine.
Haustra – individual pouches of the large intestine wall.
Teniae coli – thin longitudinal muscle layer forming the haustra.
Regions:
- Cecum - pouch-like region with the hanging vermiform appendix.
- Ascending colon – transports food up the right side of the abdomen, turning at the hepatic flexure.
- Transverse colon – transports food across the abdomen, turning at the splenic flexure.
- Descending colon – transports food down the left side of the abdomen.
- Sigmoid colon – s-shaped region.
Rectum – most distal region of the colon, where feces is stored until defecation.
Rectal valves – projections that allow gases to pass around feces.
Anus – end of the alimentary canal from which defecation occurs.
Internal anal sphincter – smooth muscle regulating anal opening.
External anal sphincter – skeletal muscle regulating anal opening.
4. Neuromuscular System (Nervous System)
Skeletal Muscle Fiber (cells)- long, multinucleated cells containing many proteins and many mitochondria.
Sarcolemma - the plasma membrane of a muscle fiber, nuclei just beneath.
Sarcoplasm -the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber.
Glycosomes -compartments that store glycogen, provides glucose during activity.
Myofilaments- the protein-based contractile elements whose specific pattern gives the striated appearance.
Thick Filaments- composed of a bundle of myosin proteins.
Thin Filaments- composed of actin and other proteins.
NMJ - where a motor neurons axon meets a skeletal muscle fiber.
Action Potential- the electrical current that travels along the neuron, then to the sarcolemma to trigger muscle contraction.
Acetylcholine (ACh)- neurotransmitter used at NMJ’s to trigger contractions, released from neuron and crosses synaptic cleft.
The Duct System
- (^) Epididymis - coiled tubules clinging to the testes where sperm mature and gain their
ability to swim.
- Vas deferens - tubule that transports sperm from the epididymis to the prostate gland,
- Urethra - passage that transports semen and urine.
Female Reproductive
Ovaries - primary sex organ, producing eggs and sex hormones. Estrogen is produced in ovaries.
Fallopian tubes - transports an egg from and ovary to uterus
Fimbriae - finger-like projections at the opening of the fallopian tube that sweep eggs in.
Uterus - hollow, muscular organ that can house and nourish a developing embryo.
Females produce estrogen from the^ ovaries , which causes the egg to mature in the ovary’s^ Graafian follicle and the uterine endometrium to thicken.
A surge of LH, luteinizing hormone , from the^ pituitary^ causes the developing egg to be released. The empty Graafian follicle is now called the corpus luteum and produces large amounts of progesterone to prepare the endometrium for implantation of the egg.
6. Integumentary System (Exocrine)
- Largest organ in this system is the SKIN.
- Synthesizes vitamin D.
a. Skin:
▲ Sebaceous glands, sweat glands
▲ Hair
▲ Nails
b. Protection:
▲ Protects body from pathogens
c. Secretion:
▲ Secretes oil
d. Communication:
▲ Sensory receptors send information about pain, touch, pressure, and temperature.
1. Epidermis:
a. Most superficial layer of the skin
b. Epithelial cells *Does not contains any blood vessels
c. Stratum Basale
- Deepest portion
- Single layer of cells
- Keratinized
- Creates Skin color
- Protect against UV rays
2. Dermis:
- Mostly connective tissue
- Blood vessels, sensory receptors, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands.
- Elastin and collagen fibers
3. Subcutaneous Layer/ Hypodermis
- Connective tissue
- Fat deposits cushion and insulate
Five types of Skin Layers in the Epidermis:
“Come Let’s Get Sun Burned” (Top to Bottom)
- Stratum Corneum – all dead cells
- Stratum Lucidum – dead cells in thick skin
- Stratum Granulosum -mixture of old cells that are alive and dying cells
- Stratum Spinosum – fairly young and happy cells
- Stratum Basale – new healthy cells being produced (Melanin is in this layer; its
job is to created skin color)
Temperature Homeostasis: Skin is involved in temperature homeostasis through sweat glands.
Sebaceous and Sudoriferous (Sweat) Glands: Both are Exocrine glands. They relieve
chemicals to the duct to open cavities. Example: Tears, Sweat and Saliva.
Sudoriferous Glands - sweat glands. (exocrine)
Sebaceous Glands - lubricating oily into hair follicles to lubricate skin and hair. (apocrine)
Keratin: Is a protein and the major component of hair, skin and nails.
Adrenal Glands -Paired glands, located above each kidney.
The Pancreas
- Located beneath the stomach
- Mixed gland – acinar cells have exocrine (digestive) function
- Groups of cells called pancreatic islets secrete hormones
Hormones
- Glucagon – secreted by alpha cells, used to elevate blood glucose levels
- Insulin – secreted by beta cells, used to lower blood glucose levels
The Gonads – the reproductive organs that produce steroidal sex hormones.
- Ovaries – female structure producing^ estrogen^ and^ progesterone. Triggers changes at puberty and regulate the menstrual cycle
- Testes – male structure producing testosterone. Triggers changes at puberty and regulates sperm production.
The Pineal Gland – in the epithalamus of the brain, secretes melatonin to regulate the sleep-wake cycle by causing drowsiness.
The Thymus – sits above the heart and diminishes with age, produces a group of hormones that activate T-lymphocytes.
8. Genitourinary System
Urinary System – includes the paired kidneys and ureters and the single bladder and urethra.
Functions
- Excretion – the elimination of wastes and toxins from the body via urine (regulating water and ion balance and blood volume)
Kidney Layers
- Cortex - outer, lighter region where majority of filtration occurs. Glomerulus is found in the cortex.
- Medulla - inner, darker region of alternating renal pyramids and renal columns.
- Renal pyramids - a bundle of collecting ducts that drain urine from the cortex.
- Renal column – cortical tissue between pyramids where blood vessels pass to access the cortex.
Parts of the renal tubule
- Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule – start of the tubule that surrounds the glomerulus to catch its leaked fluids and solutes.
- Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) – first coiled area in the cortex.
- Loop of Henle – long region that dips into medulla, includes descending and ascending limbs.
- Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) – second coiled area in the cortex.
Collecting duct – tubule that collects urine from many nephrons for transport through a pyramid to the renal sinus.
Urine is formed in 3 steps
- Glomerular filtration – plasma and solutes (valuable and waste) leak from the
glomerulus into the bowman’s capsule, forming filtrate.
- Tubular reabsorption – valuable solutes are transported from the filtrate back to the
plasma of the peritubular capillaries.
- Tubular secretion – additional wastes are added to the filtrate from the plasma of the
peritubular capillaries. The filtrate is now changed to urine.
Color – ranges from clear to deep yellow. Yellowness is due to the presence of urochrome, a pigment from the breakdown of bilirubin.
pH – urine is normally slightly acidic, pH near 6, but diet can shift this toward more acidic or alkaline.
Urine Composition
