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SURVEYING

with Construction

Applications

Seventh Edition

Barry F. Kavanagh

Seneca College, Emeritus

Prentice Hall

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Preface

This edition has some changes in the order of chapters. Reflecting the additional complexities in electronic distance measurement, the order of presentation of surveying topics has been revised as follows: The leveling chapter has been moved forward to Chapter 2, allowing instructors to introduce the simpler instruments before the more complex total stations; distance measurement has been moved to Chapter 3; total stations have been combined with electronic theodolites in Chapter 4 (optical theodolites have been moved to Appendix G); and satellite positioning has been revised and moved up in the presentation order to Chapter 7. Revision to the text and the addition of new material have been focused on the chapters describing topics where the technology and applications are still evolving. Revised text and new material are included in the following: Chapter 5, Total Stations—where the introduction has been re-written and the topics on combined total station/GPS instruments and ground-based lidar imag- ing have been revised and/or added; and Chapter 7—where the introductory topics were revised and the topics on wide area augmentation, CORS, OPUS, and real-time GPS networks were expanded. End-of-chapter problems have been expanded and refreshed. The websites given in selected chapters and in Appendix B have been updated and verified. The text continues to be divided into three parts:

• Part I “Surveying Principles,” includes chapters on the basics of surveying, leveling, distance measurement (taping and electronic distance measurement), theodolites, total stations, traverse surveys and computations, satellite positioning, geomatics, and control surveys.
• Part II “Construction Applications,” includes chapters on machine guidance and control, highway curves, highway construction, municipal street construction, pipeline and tunnel construction, culvert and bridge construction, building construction, and quantity and final surveys.
• Part III “Appendix,” includes the following information: trigonometry and geometry review, surveying and mapping Internet websites, glossary, typical field projects, answers to selected text problems, steel tape corrections, early surveying, and a color photo gallery.

As with the earlier editions of this text, material here is presented in a clear and logical fashion, a style that reflects the many years of surveying field experience and classroom instruction accumulated by the author.

iii

The following online supplements are available for instructors:

• Online Instructor’s Manual, including problem solutions, typical tests, and typical class handouts.
• Online PowerPoint Slides, illustrating all text topics.

To access and download the above supplements, instructors need to request an instructor access code. Go to http://www.pearsonhighered.com/ric , where you can request an instructor access code. Within 48 hours after registering, you will receive a confirming e-mail. Once you have received your code, go to the site and log on for full instructions on downloading the materials you wish to use. Comments and suggestions about this text are welcomed by the author at barry. [email protected].

Barry F. Kavanagh

Acknowledgments

The author is grateful for the comments and suggestions received from those who adopted previous editions of this text and from the faculty of the Civil and Resources Engineering Technology School at Seneca College. In addition, particular thanks are due to Frank Corso, Illinois Central College; Deogratias Eustace, University of Dayton; Dennis Hughes, CS Mott Community College; Hesham Mahgoub, South Dakota State University; George Murgel, Boise State University; Dan Perry, Utah Valley University; Walid H. Shayya, Morrisville State College; Dianne Slattery, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville; Brian L. Smith, University of Virginia; Eileen Young, Bristol Community College; Daniel Reed, Point Park University for their assistance with the seventh edition text reviews. The following surveying, engineering, and equipment manufacturers have provided generous assistance:

iv Preface

American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Bethesda, Maryland American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Bethesda, Maryland Applanix, Richmond Hill, Ontario Bird and Hale, Ltd., Toronto, Ontario Canadian Institute of Geomatics, Ottawa, Ontario CST/Berger, Watseka, Illinois Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI), Redlands, California Geomagnetic Laboratory, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa International Systemap Corp., Vancouver, British Columbia Laser Atlanta, Norcross, Georgia Leica Geosystems Inc., Norcross, Georgia

MicroSurvey International, Kelowna, British Columbia National Geodetic Survey (NGS), Silver Spring, Maryland OPTECH, Vaughn, Ontario Pacific Crest Corporation, Santa Clara, California Position Inc., Calgary, Alberta Sokkia Corporation, Olathe, Kansas Texas DOT, Austin, Texas Topcon Positioning Systems, Pleasanton, California Trimble, Sunnyvale, California Tripod Data Systems, Corvallis, Oregon U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado— John M. Quinn U.S. Geological Survey, Sioux Falls, South Dakota—Ron Beck

• PART I SURVEYING PRINCIPLES
  • 1 Surveying Fundamentals - 1.1 Surveying Defined - 1.2 Surveying: General Background - 1.3 Control Surveys - 1.4 Preliminary Surveys - 1.5 Surveying Instruments - 1.6 Construction Surveys - 1.7 Distance Measurement - 1.8 Angle Measurement - 1.9 Position Measurement
    • 1.10 Units of Measurement
    • 1.11 Stationing
    • 1.12 Types of Construction Projects
    • 1.13 Random and Systematic Errors
    • 1.14 Accuracy and Precision
    • 1.15 Mistakes
    • 1.16 Field Notes - Review Questions
  • 2 Leveling - 2.1 General Background - 2.2 Theory of Differential Leveling - 2.3 Curvature and Refraction
    • 2.4 Types of Surveying Levels
    • 2.5 Leveling Rods
    • 2.6 Definitions for Differential Leveling
    • 2.7 Techniques of Leveling
    • 2.8 Benchmark Leveling (Vertical Control Surveys)
    • 2.9 Profile and Cross-Section Leveling
  • 2.10 Reciprocal Leveling
  • 2.11 Peg Test
  • 2.12 Three-Wire Leveling
  • 2.13 Trigonometric Leveling
  • 2.14 Level Loop Adjustments
  • 2.15 Suggestions for Rod Work
  • 2.16 Suggestions for Instrument Work
  • 2.17 Mistakes in Leveling - Problems
• 3 Distance Measurement - 3.1 Methods of Linear Measurement - 3.2 Gunter’s Chain - 3.3 Tapes - 3.4 Steel Tapes - 3.5 Taping Accessories and Their Use - 3.6 Taping Techniques - 3.7 Taping Corrections - 3.8 Systematic Taping Errors and Corrections - 3.9 Random Taping Errors
  • 3.10 Techniques for “Ordinary” Taping Precision
  • 3.11 Mistakes in Taping
  • 3.12 Field Notes for Taping
  • 3.13 Electronic Distance Measurement
  • 3.14 Electronic Angle Measurement
  • 3.15 Principles of EDM
  • 3.16 EDM Characteristics
  • 3.17 Prisms
  • 3.18 EDM Instrument Accuracies
  • 3.19 EDM Without Reflecting Prisms - Problems
• 4 Introduction to Total Stations and Theodolites - 4.1 General Background - 4.2 Reference Directions for Vertical Angles - 4.3 Meridians - 4.4 Horizontal Angles - 4.5 Theodolites - 4.6 Electronic Theodolites - 4.7 Total Station - 4.8 Theodolite/Total Station Setup - 4.9 Geometry of the Theodolite and Total Station
  • 4.10 Adjustment of the Theodolite and Total Station
  • 4.11 Laying Off Angles
  • 4.12 Prolonging a Straight Line (Double Centering)
  • 4.13 Bucking-in (Interlining)
  • 4.14 Intersection of Two Straight Lines
  • 4.15 Prolonging a Measured Line by Triangulation over an Obstacle
  • 4.16 Prolonging a Line Past an Obstacle - Review Questions
• 5 Total Station Operations - 5.1 General Background - 5.2 Total Station Capabilities - 5.3 Total Station Field Techniques - 5.4 Field Procedures for Total Stations in Topographic Surveys - 5.5 Field-Generated Graphics - 5.6 Construction Layout Using Total Stations - 5.7 Motorized Total Stations - 5.8 Summary of Modern Total Station Characteristics and Capabilities - Capabilities 5.9 Instruments Combining Total Station Capabilities and GPS Receiver
  • 5.10 Portable/Handheld Total Stations - Review Questions
• 6 Traverse Surveys and Computations - 6.1 General Background - 6.2 Balancing Field Angles - 6.3 Meridians - 6.4 Bearings - 6.5 Azimuths - 6.6 Latitudes and Departures - 6.7 Traverse Precision and Accuracy - 6.8 Compass Rule Adjustment - 6.9 Effects of Traverse Adjustments on Measured Angles and Distances
  • 6.10 Omitted Measurement Computations
  • 6.11 Rectangular Coordinates of Traverse Stations
  • 6.12 Area of a Closed Traverse by the Coordinate Method - Review Questions - Problems
• 7 Satellite Positioning - 7.1 General Background - 7.2 U.S. Global Positioning System - 7.3 Receivers - 7.4 Satellite Constellations - 7.5 GPS Satellite Signals - 7.6 GPS Position Measurements - 7.7 Errors - 7.8 Continuously Operating Reference Stations - 7.9 Canadian Active Control System
  • 7.10 Survey Planning
  • 7.11 GPS Field Procedures
  • 7.12 GPS Applications
  • 7.13 Vertical Positioning
  • 7.14 Conclusion
  • 7.15 GPS Glossary
  • 7.16 Recommended Readings - Review Questions
• 8 An Introduction to Geomatics - 8.1 Geomatics Defined - 8.2 Branches of Geomatics - 8.3 Data Collection Branch - 8.4 Design and Plotting - 8.5 Contours - 8.6 Aerial Photography - 8.7 Airborne and Satellite Imagery - 8.8 Remote-Sensing Satellites - 8.9 Geographic Information System
  • 8.10 Database Management
  • 8.11 Metadata
  • 8.12 Spatial Entities or Features
  • 8.13 Typical Data Representation
  • 8.14 Spatial Data Models
  • 8.15 GIS Data Structures
  • 8.16 Topology
  • 8.17 Remote Sensing Internet Websites and Further Reading - Review Questions - Problems
• 9 Horizontal Control Surveys - 9.1 General Background - 9.2 Plane Coordinate Grids - 9.3 Lambert Projection Grid - 9.4 Transverse Mercator Grid - 9.5 UTM Grid - 9.6 Use of Grid Coordinates - 9.7 Illustrative Examples - 9.8 Horizontal Control Techniques - 9.9 Project Control - Review Questions - Problems
• PART II CONSTRUCTION APPLICATIONS - II.1 Introduction - II.2 General Background - II.3 Grade
  • 10 Machine Guidance and Control - 10.1 General Background - 10.2 Motorized Total Station Guidance and Control - 10.3 Satellite Positioning Guidance and Control - 10.4 Three-Dimensional Data Files - 10.5 Summary of the 3D Design Process - 10.6 Website References for Data Collection, DTM, and Civil Design - Review Questions
  • 11 Highway Curves - 11.1 Route Surveys - 11.2 Circular Curves: General Background - 11.3 Circular Curve Geometry - 11.4 Circular Curve Deflections - 11.5 Chord Calculations - 11.6 Metric Considerations - 11.7 Field Procedure (Steel Tape and Theodolite) - 11.8 Moving up on the Curve - 11.9 Offset Curves
    • 11.10 Compound Circular Curves
    • 11.11 Reverse Curves
    • 11.12 Vertical Curves: General Background
    • 11.13 Geometric Properties of the Parabola
    • 11.14 Computation of the High or the Low Point on a Vertical Curve
    • 11.15 Computing a Vertical Curve
    • 11.16 Design Considerations
    • 11.17 Spiral Curves: General Background
    • 11.18 Spiral Curve Computations
    • 11.19 Spiral Layout Procedure Summary
    • 11.20 Approximate Solution for Spiral Problems
    • 11.21 Superelevation: General Background
    • 11.22 Superelevation Design - Review Questions - Problems
• 12 Highway Construction Surveys - 12.1 Preliminary (Preengineering) Surveys - 12.2 Highway Design - 12.3 Highway Construction Layout - 12.4 Clearing, Grubbing, and Stripping Topsoil - 12.5 Placement of Slope Stakes - 12.6 Layout for Line and Grade - 12.7 Grade Transfer - 12.8 Ditch Construction - Review Questions
• 13 Municipal Street Construction Surveys - 13.1 General Background - 13.2 Classification of Roads and Streets - 13.3 Road Allowances - 13.4 Road Cross Sections - 13.5 Plan and Profile - 13.6 Establishing Centerline (cL) - 13.7 Establishing Offset Lines and Construction Control - 13.8 Construction Grades for a Curbed Street - 13.9 Street Intersections
  • 13.10 Sidewalk Construction
  • 13.11 Site Grading - Problems
• 14 Pipeline and Tunnel Construction Surveys - 14.1 Pipeline Construction - 14.2 Sewer Construction - 14.3 Layout for Line and Grade - 14.4 Catch-Basin Construction Layout - 14.5 Tunnel Construction Layout - Problems
• 15 Culvert and Bridge Construction Surveys - 15.1 Culvert Construction - 15.2 Culvert Reconstruction - 15.3 Bridge Construction: General Background - 15.4 Contract Drawings - 15.5 Layout Computations - 15.6 Offset Distance Computations - 15.7 Dimension Verification - 15.8 Vertical Control - 15.9 Cross Sections for Footing Excavations - Review Questions
• 16 Building Construction Surveys - 16.1 Building Construction: General Background - 16.2 Single-Story Construction - 16.3 Multistory Construction - Review Questions
• 17 Quantity and Final Surveys - 17.1 Construction Quantity Measurements: General Background - 17.2 Area Computations - 17.3 Area by Graphical Analysis - 17.4 Construction Volumes - 17.5 Cross Sections, End Areas, and Volumes - 17.6 Prismoidal Formula - 17.7 Volume Computations by Geometric Formulas - 17.8 Final (As-Built) Surveys - Problems
• Appendix A Trigonometry and Coordinate Geometry Review - A.1 Trigonometric Definitions and Identities - A.2 Coordinate Geometry
• Appendix B Surveying and Mapping Websites
• Appendix C Glossary
• Appendix D Typical Field Projects - D.1 Field Notes - D.2 Project 1: Building Measurements - D.3 Project 2: Experiment to Determine “Normal Tension” - Steel Tape D.4 Project 3: Field Traverse Measurements with a - D.5 Project 4: Differential Leveling - Computations D.6 Project 5: Traverse Angle Measurements and Closure - D.7 Project 6: Topographic Survey - D.8 Project 7: Building Layout - D.9 Project 8: Horizontal Curve
  • D.10 Project 9: Pipeline Layout
• Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems
• Appendix F Steel Tape Corrections
  • F.1 Erroneous Tape-Length correction
  • F.2 Temperature Corrections
  • F.3 Tension and Sag Corrections
    • Problems
• Appendix G Early Surveying
  • G.1 Evolution of Surveying
  • G.2 Dumpy Level
  • G.3 The Engineers’ Vernier Transit
  • G.4 Optical Theodolite
  • G.5 Stadia
    • Problems
      • Data-Capture Techniques Appendix H Illustrations of Machine Control and of Various
• Index

Contents xiii

FIELD NOTE INDEX Page Figure Title 38 2.15^ Leveling field notes and arithmetic check (data from Figure 2.14) 43 2.19 Profile field notes 44 2.21 Cross-section notes (municipal format) 45 2.22 Cross-section notes (highway format) 50 2.28 Survey notes for three-wire leveling 82 3.21 Taping field notes for a closed traverse 83 3.22 Taping field notes for building dimensions 103 4.6 Field notes for angles by repetition (closed traverse) 139 5.17 Field notes for total station graphics descriptors—MicroSurvey Software Inc. codes 141 5.18 Field notes for total station graphics descriptors—SOKKIA codes 159 6.3 Field notes for open traverse 160 6.4 Field notes for closed traverse 217 7.17 Station visibility diagram 220 7.18 GPS Field Log 246 8.3 Topographic field notes. (a) Single baseline (b) Split baseline 247 8.4 Original topographic field notes, 1907 (distances shown are in chains) 357 9.25 Field notes for control point directions and distances 358 9.26 Prepared polar coordinate layout notes 471 13.5 Property markers used to establish centerline 556 17.1 Example of the method of for recording sodding payment measurements 557 17.2 Field notes for fencing payment measurements 558 17.3 Example of field-book entries regarding removal of sewer pipe, etc. 559 17.4 Example of field notes for pile driving 606 D.1 Field book layout 607 D.2 Sample field notes for Project 1 (taping field notes building dimensions) 609 D.3 Sample field notes for Project 3 (traverse distances) 611 D.4 Sample field notes for Project 4 (differential leveling) 613 D.5 Sample field notes for Project 5 (traverse angles) 614 D.6 Sample field notes for Project 6 (topography tie-ins) 615 D.7 Sample field notes for Project 6 (topography cross sections) 617 D.9 Sample field notes for Project 6 (topography by theodolite/EDM) 618 D.10 Sample field notes for Project 6 (topography by total station) 621 D.11 Sample field notes for Project 7 (building layout) 658 G.17 Field notes for angles by direction 668 G.24 Stadia field notes

PART I

Surveying

Principles

Part I, which includes Chapters 1–9, introduces you to traditional and state-of-the-art techniques in data collection, layout, and presentation of field data. Chapter 1 covers surveying fundamentals. Elevation determination is covered in the chapters on leveling (Chapter 2), total stations (Chapter 5), and satellite positioning (Chapter 7). Distance measurement, using both conventional taping techniques and electronic distance measurement (EDM), is covered in Chapter 3. Data presentation is covered in Chapters 5 and 8. Angle measurements and geometric analysis of field measurements are covered in Chapters 4–6. Horizontal positioning is covered in Chapter 7, and control for both data-gathering and layout surveys is covered in Chapter 9. Although most distance measurements are now done with EDM techniques, many applications still exist for steel taping on the short-distance measurements often found in construction layouts. Taping correction techniques can be found in Chapter 3 and Appendix F.

1

Chapter 1

Surveying

Fundamentals

2

1.1 Surveying Defined

Surveying is the art and science of taking field measurements on or near the surface of the Earth. Survey field measurements include horizontal and slope distances, vertical dis- tances, and horizontal and vertical angles. In addition to measuring distances and angles, surveyors can measure position as given by the northing, easting, and elevation of a survey station by using satellite-positioning and remote-sensing techniques. In addition to taking measurements in the field, the surveyor can derive related distances and directions through geometric and trigonometric analysis. Once a survey station has been located by angle and distance, or by positioning tech- niques, the surveyor then attaches to that survey station (in handwritten or electronic field notes) a suitable identifier or attribute that describes the nature of the survey station. In Chapter 8, you will see that attribute data for a survey station can be expanded from a sim- ple descriptive label to include a wide variety of related information that can be tagged specifically to that survey station. Since the 1980s, the term geomatics has come into popular usage to describe the computerization and digitization of data collection, data processing, data analysis, and data output. Geomatics includes traditional surveying as its cornerstone, but it also reflects the now-broadened scope of measurement science and information technology. Figure 8. shows a computerized surveying data model. This illustration gives you a sense of the diversity of the integrated scientific activities now covered by the term geomatics. The vast majority of engineering and construction projects are so limited in geographic size that the surface of the Earth is considered to be a plane for all X (easterly) and Y (northerly) dimensions. Z dimensions (height) are referred to a datum, usually mean sea level. Surveys that ignore the curvature of the Earth for horizontal dimensions are called plane surveys. Surveys that cover a large geographic area—for example, state or provincial

4 Chap. 1 Surveying Fundamentals

1.2 Surveying: General Background

Surveys are usually performed for one of two reasons. First, surveys are made to collect data, which can then be plotted to scale on a plan or map (these surveys are called preliminary surveys or preengineering surveys ); second, field surveys are made to lay out dimensions taken from a design plan and thus define precisely, in the field, the location of the proposed construction works. The layouts of proposed property lines and corners as required in land division are called layout surveys ; the layouts of proposed construction features are called construction surveys. Preliminary and construction surveys for the same area must have this one characteristic in common: Measurements for both surveys must be referenced to a common base for X , Y , and Z dimensions. The establishment of a base for horizontal and vertical measurements is known as a control survey.

1.3 Control Surveys

Control surveys establish reference points and reference lines for preliminary and construc- tion surveys. Vertical reference points, called benchmarks, are established using leveling surveys (Chapter 2) or satellite-positioning surveys (Chapter 7). Horizontal control surveys (Chapter 9) use any of a variety of measuring and positioning techniques capable of providing appropriately precise results; such surveys can be tied into (1) state or provincial coordinate grids, (2) property lines, (3) roadway centerlines, and (4) arbitrarily placed base- lines or grids. When using positioning satellites to establish or re-establish ground positions, the always-available satellite systems themselves can be considered as a control net—thus greatly reducing the need for numerous on-the-ground reference stations. At present, the only fully deployed satellite-positioning system is the United States’ Global Positioning System (GPS); the Russian system, called GLONASS, is about halfway to full deployment; and others plan to have positioning systems deployed within the next five or ten years—for exam- ple, Europe’s Galileo System, China’s Compass System, and an Indian positioning system.

1.4 Preliminary Surveys

Preliminary surveys (also known as preengineering surveys, location surveys, or data- gathering surveys) are used to collect measurements that locate the position of natural features, such as trees, rivers, hills, valleys, and the like, and the position of built features, such as roads, structures, pipelines, and so forth. Measured tie-ins can be accomplished by any of the following techniques.

1.4.1 Rectangular Tie-Ins

The rectangular tie-in (also known as the right-angle offset tie) was once one of the most widely used field location techniques for preelectronic surveys. This technique, when used to locate point P in Figure 1.1(a) to baseline AB, requires distance AC (or BC), where C is on AB at 90° to point P, and it also requires measurement CP.

Sec. 1.5 Surveying Instruments 5

1.4.2 Polar Tie-Ins

Polar tie-ins (also known as the angle/distance technique) are now the most (refer also to Section 1.4.4) widely used location technique (Chapters 4 and 5). Here, point P is located from point A on baseline AB by measuring angle u and distance AP [Figure 1.1(b)].

1.4.3 Intersection Tie-Ins

This technique is useful in specialized location surveys. Point P in Figure 1.1(c) is located to baseline AB either by measuring angles from A and B to P or by swinging out arc lengths AP and BP until they intersect. The angle intersection technique is useful for near- shore marine survey locations using theodolites or total stations set up on shore control points. The distance arc intersection technique is an effective method for replacing “lost” survey points from preestablished reference ties.

1.4.4 Positioning Tie-Ins

The second most widely used technique for locating topographic features utilizes direct posi- tioning techniques common to ground-scanning techniques (Chapter 5), satellite-positioning techniques (Chapter 7), and remote-sensing techniques (Chapter 8).

FIGURE 1.1 Location ties.

1.5 Surveying Instruments

The instruments most commonly used in field surveying are (1) level and rod, (2) steel tapes, (3) theodolite, (4) total station, and (5) satellite-positioning receiver. The level and rod are used to determine differences in elevation and elevations in a wide variety of sur- veying, mapping, and engineering applications. Levels and rods are discussed in Chapter 2. Steel tapes are relatively precise measuring instruments and are used mostly for short measurements in both preliminary and layout surveys. Steel tapes and their use are dis- cussed in detail in Chapter 3. Theodolites (also called transits—short for transiting theodolites) are instruments designed for use in measuring horizontal and vertical angles and for establishing linear and