Teaching Primary Physical Education, Lecture notes of Physical Education and Motor Learning

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Teaching Primary

Physical Education

00_LAWRENCE 2E_FM.indd 1 8/18/2017 3:02:36 PM

Why Physical Education?

Chapter aims

• • To define physical education
• • To develop an understanding of the role and benefits of physical education
• • To provide opportunities for you to reflect upon your personal experiences of physical education
• • To develop an understanding of changes in physical education over the last century Links to Teachers’ Standards In working through this chapter, you should develop your knowledge associated with the Teachers’ Standards (Department for Education, 2011) detailed in Table 1.1. Introduction For many of us, our experiences of physical education have shaped the way we feel towards the subject. At times during your schooling, you probably questioned why you had to do the subject at all, especially when it was too cold, raining or too hot! For some of you, it was more about the relevance of the activity. Why was physical education on the curriculum? Why did you have to run the 1500m? These are questions that were asked but possibly never really answered.

Why Physical Education? 5

Task 1.

1 Using your own experiences to provide examples, reflect on what physical education was like for you in the following contexts: a primary school b secondary school c outside of school. 2 From these experiences identify the following: a what activities did you experience? b what did you most enjoy about physical education? c what did you dislike about physical education? 3 What impact did these have on your participation? 4 What physical activities do you now participate in? 5 How might you use these experiences when teaching physical education? Your experiences of physical education will have varied across phases of education (between primary and secondary school), as well as between contexts (what you did in school compared with what you did outside of the school day). Some of these expe- riences may have been positive while others may have been negative. You will have experienced a range of activities; some you enjoyed, some less so. If you have had the opportunity to discuss these experiences, you may well have found that they differed between males and females. Many of your experiences will have been based on the staff who taught you and their own beliefs about physical education. Understanding how our previous experiences have shaped our attitudes, beliefs and values towards physical education, provides us with the opportunity to reflect on what we might therefore teach and how we might teach it. However, we still need to look at how the profession and those who prescribe our curriculum define physical education. Curriculum development in physical education The Department for Education (2013) identifies the purpose of physical education as follows: A high-quality physical education curriculum inspires all pupils to succeed and excel in competitive sport and other physically-demanding activities. It should provide opportunities for pupils to become physically confident in a way which supports their health and fitness. Opportunities to compete in sport and other activities build character and help to embed values such as fairness and respect. (DfE, 2013: 247)

6 Teaching Primary Physical Education Detailing that: The national curriculum for physical education aims to ensure that all pupils

• • develop competence to excel in a broad range of physical activities
• • are physically active for sustained periods of time
• • engage in competitive sports and activities
• • lead healthy, active lives. (DfE, 2013: 247) However, this overview provides us with some detail as to what physical education looks like in the mind of policy makers. It does not detail specifically what it is. Therefore in working to construct a definition of physical education, it is important to review current literature in the field both nationally and internationally. This will allow us to establish how different people and organisations define physical education, allowing for personal reflection as to what it means to ourselves. Physical education has and will probably continue to be defined not only as a single subject in its own right but also in relation to other aspects of physicality and how this manifests itself. Therefore alongside physical education you may also see references made to Physical Activity (PA), Physical Literacy (PL), Physical Education and School Sport (PESS), Physical Education School Sport and Commu- nity Links (PESSCL), Physical Education and Sport Strategy for Young People (PESSYP) and Health and Wellbeing or Healthy Active Lifestyle. Such terms are used by many interchangeably in the context of the physical education environ- ment, or in relation to national policy. Therefore definitions for these will be provided within this chapter. A starting point in understanding what physical edu- cation is, is to review how the physical education curriculum has evolved over time, to establish current thinking from those responsible for the design and delivery of the subject. The Board of Education identified that ‘the object of Physical Education and Training is to help in the production and maintenance of health in body and mind’ (1933: 9), identifying the effects of engagement with the subject as physical and educational. Whilst physical effects may seem obvious, it is also the educational aspects associated with mental and moral development; specifically, they argued that ‘exercises, if rightly conducted, also have the effect, not less important, of developing in the children a cheerful and joyous spirit, together with the qualities of alertness, decision, concen- tration, and perfect control of the brain over body’ (1933: 10). Physical education at the turn of the twentieth century focused on physical training. Curriculum content encouraged the development of motor competences through gymnastic-based and drill-style activities. Such practice was reflective of the Swedish Gymnastics movement. A lesson would typically be composed of a series of drills, for example arm rotations or trunk rotations, with activities being taught outside. A focus on gymnastic and dance-based activities coincided with the development of move- ment frameworks with the emphasis not only on the physical skill being developed but also on concepts such as space, effort and relationships. In many ways, there was

8 Teaching Primary Physical Education What becomes apparent is that curriculum design and consequently how physical education is viewed by policy makers (albeit with some consultation with experts within the field of physical education) remains changeable. However, throughout the development of physical education across the curriculum a focus on the physical, mental (emotional and cognitive) and the moral (to include social) aspects is high- lighted, suggesting that physical education is more than just developing physical skills. It is more focused on the development of the individual as a whole. It allows the child to make progress across a number of areas of development and we will now look at the literature to draw out more explicitly the meaning of physical education. Aims and benefits of physical education Research and personal reflections have allowed individuals to review and revise the processes involved in the subject, looking again at the potential benefits of physical education and most appropriate methods of delivery. Emerging from the previous section of this chapter is an acknowledgement that physical education is not just about the physical. What is clear is that in terms of the policy changes across time, physical education has been seen as a vehicle for addressing issues such as the physicality of individuals – which included not only their skill development, but also their knowledge of their body – and that physical education could address wider issues concerning the engagement of individuals with others and their society, par- ticularly how they worked together, development of personal skills around character and also address health issues. However, as well as looking at policy around phys- ical education, it is also important to review academic literature. Corbin (2002) suggests ‘a physically educated person must be fit, be skilled, know the benefits of physical activity, and value physical activity’ (2002: 134), with Whitehead (2004) arguing that physical education is more than just the learning of specific sport-related skills. While successful participation in physical education may be an initial aim of the curriculum (indeed it was highlighted as a key focus in original National Curriculum documentation published in 1991), it is the development of pupils’ abilities to assess their own and others’ performance, take increasing responsibility for their own progress and finally apply their knowledge in increas- ingly challenging situations that allows them to develop what is commonly referred to as higher order thinking skills (Corbin and Lindsey, 1997). In their review of the educational benefits of physical education, Bailey et al. (2006) argue that the strength of the subject lies in the development that pupils can experi- ence physically, socially, affectively and cognitively. They conclude that as pupils engage in a range of physically active pursuits during the school day, the overall physical education of the individual can be seen as much more than the activities they are taught or experience within the school curriculum. In fact, the knowledge, skills and understanding that they develop during curriculum time can be applied in a range

Why Physical Education? 9 of differing contexts, for example during playtime, after school and away from the school environment in respect of any extra-curricular classes they may attend during the evening or at weekends. Such a premise reinforces what we have already started to highlight, namely that physical education is much more than participating in spe- cific activities. Further, it highlights that physical education whilst taught in schools, is applied across a range of other contexts outside of the school environment. Thus it can be argued (as with all curriculum subjects) that what we teach in school is prep- aration for continued engagement in the subject across the individual’s life time. In this regard, some researchers (Haydn-Davies, 2005; Whitehead, 2004, 2005) have argued that rather than physically educating pupils, which suggests ‘mastery of a measurable profile of achievements, of a prescribed set of skills’ (Whitehead, 2004: 5) a move should be made towards developing physical literacy. Whitehead provides the following definition for physical literacy: As appropriate to each individual’s endowment, physical literacy can be described as the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge and understanding to maintain physical activity throughout the lifecourse. (2010: 12) Embedded within this definition, Whitehead (2010) identifies six key attributes asso- ciated with physical literacy, these being: motivation, confidence and competence, ability to interact across environments, sense of self, interaction with others, and knowledge and understanding. Central to the philosophy supporting physical literacy is the view of the individual as a whole, with the body and mind as a single entity, rather than early definitions (BoE, 1933) that can be interpreted as seeing the body and mind as separate. More recently the Association for Physical Education (AfPE) have identified the outcomes for the child as a result of high quality physical education as associated with health, skill development and emotional development with Almond (2015) argu- ing that we can look to refocus physical education away from traditional viewpoints to ones that focus on:

• • Health as a resource
• • Promoting purposeful physical pursuits to enrich lives
• • Developing personal capital
• • Helping young people to learn to give their life shape and purpose. (Almond, 2015: 22) Thus, drawing on curriculum design and academic writing around the subject we can start to unpick some of the key ways in which physical education supports the devel- opment of the child. Table 1.2 attempts to summarise these with Task 1.2 providing an opportunity for you to reflect in more depth on your own thoughts of what the aims of physical education should be.

Why Physical Education? 11 Physical education terminology As identified earlier in the chapter, physical education is often referred to in associa- tion with other concepts, for example, physical activity (PA), healthy active lifestyles, health and wellbeing, school sport. It is therefore important to look at how these are defined and how they are linked to physical education. PA is associated with any activity that means that your body is working harder than normal. Any force exerted by skeletal muscle that results in energy expenditure above rest- ing level. The term physical activity therefore includes the full range of human movement, from competitive sport and exercise to active hobbies, walking, cycling, or activities of daily life. Physical activity per se is a complex, multi-dimensional behaviour. (Department of Health, 2004: 81) Daily recommended levels of physical activity are published. In the United Kingdom the recommended level of physical activity for children and young people is: a total of at least 60 minutes of at least moderate intensity physical activity each day. At least twice a week this should include activities to improve bone health (activities that produce high physical stresses on the bones), muscle strength and flexibility. (Department for Health, 2004: 10) Within this published report, guidance is provided on the type of activities that can be undertaken, as well as the levels of intensity for the activities. While the guidance is for an hour of physical activity per day, this can be made up of a series of smaller blocks of time, for example walking or cycling to and from school, playground activities and pre-lesson activities (such as Wake Up Shake Up). This minimum sug- gested time for daily physical activity continues to be reinforced (Department of Health, 2010), with more recent research suggesting that minimum expected engage- ment should be increased further. With increasing child obesity levels, increasing emphasis is being placed on schools to look at how, through healthy diets and exer- cise, they can support pupils and parents to understand the impact of such lifestyles on their overall health and wellbeing (see Chapter 9 for a more detailed analysis and overview of health and wellbeing). Key then is looking at how opportunities for pupils to be physically active can be embedded throughout the school day. What is clear, however, is that physical education has the potential to influence PA levels. If we refer to Table 1.2, one of the key characteristics of the subject is the influ- ence it can have on the attitudes pupils hold towards it. If the experiences of the subject are positive, it is likely that pupils will hold a positive attitude towards it, result- ing in a willingness to persist with it – in essence their levels of motivation, seen by Whitehead (2010) as the first of her six key attributes of physical education. However, we also need to acknowledge that in terms of the recommended physical activity levels we are not necessarily going to be able to achieve these within our lessons.

12 Teaching Primary Physical Education Therefore it is important that we look to develop links with other organisations to support the development of the child away from the school environment. PESSCL, established in 2002, had the aim of raising sporting opportunities for chil- dren and young adults. It suggested that physical education, and sport in schools, both within and beyond the curriculum, can improve the following:

• • pupil concentration, commitment and self-esteem; leading to higher attendance and better behaviour and attainment;
• • fitness levels; active children are less likely to be obese and more likely to pursue sporting activities as adults, thereby reducing the likelihood of coronary heart disease, diabetes and some forms of cancer; and
• • success in international competition by ensuring talented young sports people have a clear pathway to elite sport and competition whatever their circumstances. (Department for Education and Skills, 2002: 1) This strategy was superseded in 2008 by the PESSYP. The key aim of this strategy was to extend the current provision of two hours’ high quality PESS to a five-hour offer comprised of two hours of curriculum and an additional three hours of extra-curricular provision. With both strategies, the emphasis on supporting the development and maintenance of high quality physical education was central. Developing strong links between primary and secondary schools was encouraged as well as links with external organisations (this will be explored in greater depth in Chapter 11). Additional funding and support for physical education saw another change in 2013 with the introduction of the Primary PE and Sports Premium which provides funding for schools to support the growth and development of physical education and sport across the school. The Association for Physical Education and Youth Sport Trust (2016) report that the aim of the funding is to ensure that ‘ALL pupils leaving primary school are physically literate and with the knowledge, skills and motivation necessary to equip them for a healthy, active lifestyle and lifelong participation in physical activity and sport’. The objective is: To achieve self-sustaining improvement in the quality of PE and sport in pri- mary schools against 5 key indicators:
  • • the engagement of all pupils in regular physical activity – kick-starting healthy active lifestyles
  • • the profile of PE and sport being raised across the school as a tool for whole school improvement
  • • increased confidence, knowledge and skills of all staff in teaching PE and sport
  • • broader experience of a range of sports and activities offered to all pupils
  • • increased participation in competitive sport. (AfPE and YST, 2016: 1; bold as in original text)

14 Teaching Primary Physical Education aims and benefits of participating in physical education. As we have previously alluded to, how you see the subject will impact on how and what you teach. Kirk suggests that ‘early learning experiences are crucial to the continuing involvement in physical activity’ (2005: 2), a belief further acknowledged with the Sporting Future strategy (Cabinet Office, 2015). More specifically Kirk (2005) argues that it is the development of pupils’ competence within physical education during their early schooling that may ultimately impact upon their overall engagement with the subject – a premise supported across the physical education fraternity. Our role as physical educators therefore becomes focused on ensuring that early experiences of physical education are positive and that they build pupils’ motivational levels to ensure sustainability of engagement across their primary experiences and provide strong foundations for continued participation into their secondary education and beyond. How this can be achieved is embedded across the remaining chapters of this book. Thus the key aspect of the teaching of physical education is the way in which the activities are presented, a premise that reflects the work of both Gallahue and Ozmun (1995) who argue that it is the way in which the task is presented that is important, and Corbin (2002) who suggests that ‘learning skill builds confidence, but confidence is needed to build skill’ (2002: 133). Therefore we should look to develop a teaching environment based on concepts of personal mastery where success is reflected in the completion of a given task rather than by comparison against others, or a ‘person- centred participation model’ (Whitehead, 2005: 7). This underlines the relationship between our aims and definition of physical education and the approaches we adopt in respect of the delivery of the subject. We have now spent some time looking at the aims of physical education. We have also started to think about the content of our curriculum, specifically at the range of other areas where physical education can be used to support development beyond mere participation. We have looked at how curriculum changes have taken place over the last century, but also how the core aims of physical education have remained in many respects unchanged. It is evident from the literature reviewed and the progressions seen in curriculum design that perspectives on the subject have changed over time and as a teacher of physical education, you will find it beneficial to reflect upon why physical education is taught within the school. Task 1.4 will help you to do this.

Task 1.

Physical education has been defined in many ways. Each of these definitions contains different core aims and related benefits for the subject. Using these aims and benefits of physical education, provide a rationale for the inclusion of physical education as a curriculum subject within the primary school.

Why Physical Education? 15 High quality physical education In defining and reviewing the aims of physical education, we can start to identify what makes a high quality physical education experience. The AfPE (2016) suggests that high quality physical education is reflected through the curriculum taught, how the subject is taught, high levels of behaviour and safety, inclusion practices, and leadership and man- agement. According to Ofsted (2013), schools demonstrating good or outstanding teaching in physical education demonstrate the following:

• • Consistently high expectations of all pupils
• • Teacher–pupil relationships that promote engagement and enjoyment
• • Inspired pupils
• • Purposeful and appropriately paced learning activities
• • Modelling of techniques by teachers As a professional we have a duty to promote high quality physical education within our classes and across the schools in which we teach. AfPE (2016) published their Physical Education Declaration which states: AfPE believes passionately in the value of high quality physical education, physical activity and participation in school sport. Each has an enormous impact on health and emotional wellbeing as well as significantly impacting on whole school improvement, so we would ask that you help us to ensure that:
  • • Health and emotional wellbeing of all young people are improved.
  • • Education is an entitlement and therefore the impact of physical education across the curriculum should be valued and recognised.
  • • Leadership by all head teachers, governors, subject leaders and heads of departments promotes and celebrates the value of physical education, physical activity and school sport.
  • • Physical education is ‘Powerful Education’ and that you support and recog- nise the impact is has on whole school development, making a real difference to the lives of young people and preparing them for an ever-changing world. Thus if we are to ensure the delivery of high quality physical education, it is how we work in partnership within and across schools and our local community that will define success.

Chapter summary

The aim of this chapter has been to look at defining physical education and to review changes in its focus and content over time. It has required you to identify your own aims for the subject and the ways in which these might be reflected in (Continued)