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TEST BANK FOR RESEARCH DESIGN, QUALITATIVE, QUANTITATIVE AND
MIXED METHODS APPROACHES, 6TH EDITION CRESWELL (CHAPTER 7)
Research Questions and Hypotheses - ANSWER-The questions and hypotheses addressed by the researcher serve to narrow and focus the purpose of the study. As a major signpost in a project, the set of research questions and hypotheses needs to be written carefully. Qualitative Research Questions - ANSWER-In a qualitative study, inquirers state research questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for the research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve variables and statistical tests). Qualitative research questions assume two forms: - ANSWER-(a) a central question and (b) associated subquestions Ask one or two central research questions. - ANSWER-The central question is a broad question that asks for an exploration of the central phenomenon or concept in a study. The inquirer poses this question, consistent with the emerging methodology of qualitative research, as a general issue so as to not limit the views of participants. To arrive at this question, ask, "What is the broadest question that I can ask in the study?" Ask one or two central research questions. - ANSWER-In qualitative research, the intent is to explore the general, complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon and present the broad, varied perspectives or meanings that participants hold.
The following are guidelines for writing qualitative research questions: - ANSWER-- Ask no more than five to seven subquestions in addition to your central questions.
- Relate the central question to the specific qualitative strategy of inquiry.
- Begin the research questions with the words what or how to convey an open and emerging design.
- Focus on a single phenomenon or concept.
- Use exploratory verbs that convey the language of emerging design.
- Use these more exploratory verbs as nondirectional rather than directional words that suggest quantitative research.
- Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study in a manner consistent with the assumptions of an emerging design.
- Use open-ended questions without reference to the literature or theory unless otherwise indicated by a qualitative strategy of inquiry.
- Specify the participants and the research site for the study if the information has not yet been given. Ask no more than five to seven subquestions in addition to your central questions. - ANSWER-Several subquestions follow each general central question; they narrow the focus of the study but leave open the questioning. This approach is well within the limits set by Miles and Huberman (1994), who recommended that researchers write no more than a dozen qualitative research questions in all (central and subquestions). The subquestions, in turn, become specific questions used during interviews (or in observing or when looking at documents).
Expect the research questions to evolve and change during the study in a manner consistent with the assumptions of an emerging design. - ANSWER-Often in qualitative studies, the questions are under continual review and reformulation (as in a grounded theory study). This approach may be problematic for individuals accustomed to quantitative designs in which the research questions remain fixed and never change throughout the study. Here is a typical script for a qualitative central question: - ANSWER-_________ (How or what?) is the _________ ("story for" for narrative research; "meaning of" the phenomenon for phenomenology; "theory that explains the process of" for grounded theory; "culture-sharing pattern" for ethnography; "issue" in the "case" for case study) of
(central phenomenon) for _________ (participants) at _________ (research site). Quantitative Research Questions - ANSWER-In quantitative studies, investigators use quantitative research questions and hypotheses, and sometimes objectives, to shape and specifically focus the purpose of the study. Quantitative Research Questions - ANSWER-inquire about the relationships among variables that the investigator seeks to know. They are frequently used in social science research and especially in survey studies. Quantitative hypotheses - ANSWER-predictions the researcher makes about the expected outcomes of relationships among variables. They are numeric estimates of population values based on data collected from samples. Testing of hypotheses employs statistical procedures in which the investigator draws inferences about the population from a study sample.
Quantitative hypotheses - ANSWER-used often in experiments in which investigators compare groups. Advisers sometimes recommend their use in a formal research project, such as a dissertation or thesis, as a means of stating the direction a study will take. Objectives - ANSWER-indicate the goals or objectives for a study An example of a script for a quantitative research question describing outcomes of score for a variable: - ANSWER-What is the frequency and variation of scores on _________ (name the variable) for _________ (participants) in the study? Here is an example of a script for a quantitative research question focused on examining the relationship among variables: - ANSWER-Does _________ (name the theory) explain the relationship between _________ (independent variable) and _________ (dependent variable), controlling for the effects of _________ (control variable)? A script for a quantitative null hypothesis might be as follows: - ANSWER-There is no significant difference between _________ (the control and experimental groups on the independent variable) on _________ (dependent variable). Guidelines for writing good quantitative research questions and hypotheses include the following. - ANSWER-• The use of variables in research questions or hypotheses is typically limited to three basic approaches.
- The most rigorous form of quantitative research follows from a test of a theory and the specification of research questions or hypotheses that logically follow from the relationship among variables in the theory.
from an adviser or faculty committee, or whether past research indicates a prediction about outcomes. null hypothesis - ANSWER-represents the traditional approach: It makes a prediction that in the general population, no relationship or no significant difference exists between groups on a variable. The wording is, "There is no difference (or relationship)" between the groups. alternative or directional hypothesis - ANSWER-The investigator makes a prediction about the expected outcome, basing this prediction on prior literature and studies on the topic that suggest a potential outcome. For example, the researcher may predict that "scores will be higher for Group A than for Group B" on the dependent variable or that "Group A will change more than Group B" on the outcome. These examples illustrate a directional hypothesis because an expected prediction (e.g., higher, more change) is made. nondirectional hypothesis - ANSWER-a prediction is made, but the exact form of differences (e.g., higher, lower, more, less) is not specified because the researcher does not know what can be predicted from past literature. Thus, the investigator might write, "There is a difference" between the two groups. Sometimes directional hypotheses - ANSWER-are created to examine the relationship among variables rather than to compare groups because the researcher has some evidence from past studies of the potential outcome of the study. mediating variables or moderating variables - ANSWER-These are
variables that either "stand between" the independent and dependent variables or they moderate the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Because quantitative studies attempt to verify theories, demographic variables (e.g., age, income level, educational level) typically enter these studies as intervening (or mediating) or moderating variables instead of major independent variables. Use the same pattern of word order in the questions or hypotheses to enable a reader to easily identify the major variables. - ANSWER-This calls for repeating key phrases and positioning the variables with the independent first and concluding with the dependent in left-to-right order. Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses - ANSWER-A strong mixed methods study should contain the qualitative question, the quantitative question or hypothesis, and a mixed methods question. This configuration is necessary because mixed methods does not rely exclusively on either qualitative or quantitative research but on both forms of inquiry. Researchers should consider what types of questions should be presented and when and what information is most needed to convey the nature of the study. Both qualitative and quantitative research questions (or hypotheses) need to be advanced in a mixed methods study in order to narrow and focus the purpose statement. - ANSWER-These questions or hypotheses can be advanced at the beginning or when they emerge during a later phase of the research. For example, if the study begins with a quantitative phase, the investigator might introduce hypotheses. Later in the study, when the qualitative phase is addressed, the qualitative research
The mixed methods question can be written in different ways. - ANSWER-This can assume one of three forms: (1) To write it in a way that conveys the methods or procedures in a study (e.g., Does the qualitative data help explain the results from the initial quantitative phase of the study?); (2) To write it in a way that conveys the content of the study (e.g., Does the theme of social support help to explain why some students become bullies in schools?) (see Tashakkori & Creswell, 2007). The third approach is to combine the methods and content (e.g., How does the qualitative interview data on student bullying further explain why social support, as measured quantitatively, tends to discourage bullying as measured on a bullying scale?). Consider how to present the quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods questions in a mixed methods study. - ANSWER-An ideal format would be to write the questions into separate sections, such as the quantitative questions or hypotheses, the qualitative questions, and the mixed methods question. This format highlights the importance of all three sets of questions and draws the readers' attention to the separate quantitative and qualitative strands coming together (or being integrated) in a mixed methods study. Place the mixed methods question (written in methods or content or some combination form) last because the study will build to this element of the design.
