Understanding Children's Development: Holistic Growth from Birth to 19 Years, Lecture notes of Communication

Download Understanding Children's Development: Holistic Growth from Birth to 19 Years and more Lecture notes Communication in PDF only on Docsity! LEVEL 3 AWARD IN SUPPORTING TEACHING & as LEARNING IN SCHOOLS 2 Course: Level 3 Award in Supporting Teaching and Learning in Schools (QCF) Unit 01: Understand Child and Young Person Development. Understand the expected pattern of development for children and young people from birth - 19 years. As someone who is expecting to work directly with children and young people, you will need to understand and have some knowledge of their development between birth to 19 years of age. This unit aims to provide learners with a starting point for this type of knowledge and understanding, including understanding the factors that influence development, and how to monitor their development as they grow, especially if it does not follow typical patterns. Learning outcomes: 1 Understand the expected pattern of development for children and young people from birth - 19 years. 2 Understand the factors that influence children and young people’s development and how these affect practice. 3 Understand how to monitor children and young people’s development and interventions that should take place if this is not following the expected pattern. 4 Understand the importance of early intervention to support the speech, language and communication needs of children and young people. 5 Understand the potential effects of transitions on children and young people’s development. 1.1 5 things, and may learn to feed and dress themselves. They might also enjoy climbing (up steps and on the sofa) and playing with balls and other moving toys. The third year tends to give them even more fine control over their hand movements, and this is when they are likely to learn to form recognisable shapes with pens and pencils, and enjoy looking at books. Even turning the page can be exciting when you are two! They will also be able to walk better and run with confidence, and may use toys that they can sit on and move, such as toy tractors and tricycles. Language and communication It is known that babies who are neglected, and who do not get much adult contact, tend to find it much harder later on to learn communication and social skills. It is thought, therefore, that the stimulation of adults and older children communicating with them, even though the baby cannot understand what is being said, is just as important as everything else that is done with them. Language is part of the everyday sounds that babies will listen to, even though they may not participate, and songs are also lovely elements of language that they are thought to enjoy. At around 1 year old, they will start to attempt to speak, but often their pronunciation is unclear and the words are typically used singly, by themselves, rather than in sentences. In the following 12 months, they start bringing words together into short phrases and sentences, and as they use language more, their vocabulary will increase quite quickly. Concepts such as plurals and negatives come in the next 12 months, and sentences become better formed, although grammatical errors in speech are also likely – especially as English is a fairly 'irregular' language, so verbs such as 'eat' become 'eaten', but a common mistake for a very young child is to say 'eated' instead of 'eaten'. Social, emotional, moral and behavioural challenges As babies start to discover their own identities, they decide if they like or dislike things, animals, people, vegetables, and so on. They form strong attachments with a key person – usually their main carer or parent – and this is then extended to other key people outside of their family. This is one of the reasons they are given a key worker at nurseries, because the level of trust that can be built between the child and a single adult has a great deal of use in these contexts. The child may look to the adult for help 6 with learning how to do things for themselves, and this kind of relationship can help manage the frustrated tantrums that come when they are unable to do something alone. Intellectual and cognitive development How children develop cognitively can depend on the opportunities – and therefore their experiences – given them from an early age. Some children learn very quickly, but learning is not a smooth curve, no matter what the child's innate intellectual capacity is. Some children will learn in lots of ways, while others find some tasks more difficult. They can also be quite inconsistent in ability, being very good at some things and yet unable to do certain other tasks. There are lots of theories expounded about how children learn and it is worth reading around the subject to see if you agree or disagree with the theories and to understand this unit better. Learning starts the moment we are born, and babies take in everything as they look around themselves. They may not understand it all yet, but their learning has already begun. Babies like repetitive activities because they understand quickly what the outcome is supposed to be (and they therefore know when it is not as they expected) and their first three years are often spent learning the names of things like, for example, animals, and even more conceptual things, like colours and shapes and the sounds that different animals make. Formative years: 3 – 12 years Physical development During the early primary stages, children typically find that their movements can be better controlled in tandem. This can grow their confidence, which in turn helps them develop more. Confidence is crucial to child development, because it means that they are unafraid to try new things that will expand their world. Running, hopping, jumping, and using bigger toys like frisbees and balls are lots of fun for them. Their fine motor skills – the little movements – become more controlled, and this means that they can have more fun with things like writing, drawing, and cutting out shapes. After the age of about 7 years, children tend to start developing particular interests and skills. If they have a very strong interest in something, such as swimming or dancing, or other sports, they often get very good at the skills needed around that 7 activity. Their coordination develops in such a way that their motor movements can be very fine indeed, and it is because of this that musical instruments and hobbies like drawing become more interesting and more accessible to them. Girls may start early signs of puberty from around the ages of 10-11, although boys tend to be a little later, following an additional growth spurt. Language and communication Young children from the age of about 2-3 years old often pick up new words and phrases from everywhere they go, whether off the TV or said by people they meet. They start to use these phrases fairly quickly, and between 2/3 and 7 is when they will also begin asking a huge number of questions, including the overuse of the word 'why'! Using past and future tenses when they are talking about things are a really positive sign that their confidence with language is increasing. Typical children from the age of 7 upwards are usually fluent in speaking their primary language, and they develop further their reading and writing skills in that language. Much of the work done as they get older is around refining their skills in this way. The better a child's language skills – even if it is just in their own primary language – the better able they are to think and navigate ideas, learning and the world in general. Without language, the world would be a very tough place. Social, emotional, moral and behavioural challenges Playing with other children, and socialising through imaginative play is one of the ways young children continue to develop their identities. Imaginative play, including role playing and inventive games, also helps them to develop the way they see the different roles in their lives such as mummy, daddy, teacher, doctor and so on. They can also begin to learn about boundaries, why they are important, and why they are so completely necessary. Adult approval is really important around all their learning behaviour at this time, and building on this need, this age group also tends to respond very well to being given a small amount of responsibility, such as looking after each other, or looking after class pets. As they get a little older, into the later primary stages, friendships become more fixed – perhaps you still know some of the people you went to primary school with - and children develop groups of friends. Sometimes these are the same friends together in everything, and sometimes they have particular groups for specific activities. 10 At the school-leaving ages, young people should be able to make choices about their future based on the pathways and subjects that they chose earlier on in their education. Focusing on their strengths and aiming for a bright future is a great way to continue the learning achievements, and it is also important for them to understand that even failure can be a route to success. 1.2 11 Explain the difference between sequence of development and rate of development and why the difference is important. The most important words in the assessment criterion heading here are 'sequence' and 'rate'. Sequence of development means the order in which a child develops. Rate of development means the speed at which they develop. 'Development' can refer to physical development, cognitive development and all the others mentioned in the previous section of this unit. The reason it is important that you understand the difference between the two is that while typical children follow the same pattern of development, they may reach the milestones at different ages, depending on the child and a range of personal and external factors that may affect them. Milestones are certain points in a child's development that are judged according to the broad average time when they are expected to reach them. For example, the milestone of walking unassisted is around the age of 2-3 years. Some children may get there early, while others may lag behind, and there is nothing necessarily abnormal or unusual about either. Development tends to be divided into different areas but it is important to remember that all areas of development are connected with each other. For example, a child who is particularly tall at age 10 may also be very good at certain sporting activities such as high jump or throwing. If they then start going to the school athletics club, they may become better at socialising with other children of different ages, and this can help them grow in confidence, which in turn will improve their development and their receptivity to learning. 12 Learning thorough painting and art activities. Did you know? Sometimes children can surprise us, with unusual answers to questions, or with different approaches to problem-solving. This type of behaviour development can suggest high creativity in a child, and since creativity is a valuable resource in adulthood, it should be encouraged where possible. Unfortunately, some of the things we do to encourage children, such as reward-giving, actually hinder the creative process and its development in a child, so this is a difficult line to walk in school. However, some of the best things that can be done with creative children is to give them choices, provide a stimulating environment, and let them freely express ideas without fear of a negative response. Initiative Challenge In order to successfully complete your course you must complete this Initiative Challenge Point. Challenge Point 2 Long-Term Career Plans Research shows people who have a long-term career plan, find it easier to display their initiative. Such people, are very clear about their ambition and how to achieve it. It is this 15 2.1 Explain how children and young people’s development is influenced by a range of personal factors Children and young people's development can be either boosted or restricted by personal factors, as well as external ones (which we will look at in the next AC). The environment they grow up with, their health – and their parents' health – are all factors that have some kind of impact on a growing child, and tend to affect all areas of development, not just one. PREVENT Challenge In order to successfully complete your course you must complete this PREVENT Challenge Point. Challenge Point 1 As the preventative strand of CONTEST, PREVENT will:- • Respond to the ideological challenge of terrorism and the threat faced by the UK from those who promote it. • Prevent people from being drawn into terrorism and ensure they are given appropriate advice and support. • Work with a wide range of sectors (including education, criminal justice, faith, charities, the internet and health) • Where there are risks of radicalisation which need to be addressed. What is the aim of PREVENT? In Colleges, Schools and (even!) Early Year’s Settings, PREVENT’s aim is, in a nutshell, to stop people supporting terrorism or becoming terrorists themselves. Schools can help to protect children from extremist and violent views in the same ways that they help to safeguard children from drugs, gang violence or alcohol. Schools’ work on PREVENT needs to be seen in this context. The purpose must be to protect children from harm and to ensure that they are taught in a way that is consistent with the law and our (British) values. ‘Colleges have an important role to play in PREVENT, particularly in ensuring 16 balanced debate as well as freedom of speech. They also have a clear responsibility to exercise their duty of care and to protect the welfare of their students. Staff can identify and offer support to students who may be drawn into extremism.’ This work is often best conducted through partnership solutions, not necessarily through single agency police involvement. Police can advise on referral mechanisms or on issues that are dealt with in school or college From 1 July 2015 the PREVENT duty became law. This is a duty on all schools and registered early years providers to have due regard to preventing people being drawn into terrorism. In order to protect children in your care, you must be alert to any reason for concern in the child’s life at home or elsewhere. This includes awareness of the expression of extremist views. In addition to this, The Counter Terrorism and Security Act also places a duty on early years providers “to have due regard to the need to prevent people from being drawn into terrorism” (The PREVENT duty), effective from 1 July 2015. In order for schools and childcare providers to fulfil the PREVENT duty, it is essential that staff are able to identify children who may be vulnerable to radicalisation, and know what to do when they are identified. Protecting children from the risk of radicalisation should be seen as part of schools’ and childcare providers’ wider safeguarding duties, and is similar in nature to protecting children from other harms (e.g. drugs, gangs, neglect, sexual exploitation), whether these come from within their family or are the product of outside influences. PREVENT should be seen as part of the existing school or college safeguarding framework; a local approach to ensuring the safety and well-being of all children and young people from birth to age 19. Each area of the UK has adopted their own definition of safeguarding, but these often include the following phrases: • Protecting children from maltreatment • Preventing impairment of children's health or development • Ensuring that children are growing up in circumstances consistent with the provision of safe and effective care • Taking action to enable children in need to have optimum life chances. 17 British Values British values are a set of four values introduced to help keep children safe and promote their welfare –specifically to counter extremism: Democracy The rule of law Individual liberty Mutual respect and tolerance of different faiths and beliefs In England the EYFS will be updated to reference providers’ responsibilities in the light of the PREVENT duty and Ofsted will include this in their inspection of early years and childcare. From September 2015, Ofsted inspections assess the arrangements schools have in place to promote pupils’ welfare and prevent radicalisation and extremism. See below for a video on one of the most recent high profile examples of radicalization in the UK. 20 2.2 Explain how children and young people’s development is influenced by a range of external factors External factors can have a strong bearing on a child's development right from the start, but they can also affect how engaged a child is with school and group activities. If the child has any personal factors that make their rounded development more challenging, external factors on top of these may exacerbate difficulties. However, with good practice and support, schools and nurseries should be able to help with these. Families and changes Children spend around 15 years in school, and during this time their families often go through a huge number of changes during this lengthy time. Some children are born in another country, and go through a family move to the UK, while others may have family breakups, new 'step-parents', moving house in general, and may even go through illness or a parent's sickness, or bereavement. All of these things can affect a child's development, particularly their emotional, social, and intellectual development, and teachers and classroom assistants may notice that some children seem to change the way they behave in class, and even how much they are able to learn. 21 External factors that affect child development. Social and cultural background Children in modern Britain are likely to come from a wide variety of cultural backgrounds and circumstances, and this type of factor should also be taken into account when evaluating a child or young person's development. Traditional social attitudes to education can permeate a child's development without anyone realising it, so, for example, in regions where poverty and high unemployment has been multi- generational, there can be difficulty in engaging children in terms of looking towards a prosperous and educated future. Similarly, cultural restrictions and attitudes again to education and futures for children can be difficult to negotiate sometimes through the kaleidoscope of British culture; some cultures are more restrictive – sometimes this is relegated only to one of the genders – some cultures may produce parents who are very ambitious for their children, and this can produce other challenges at school. Economic status Studies and statistics all bear the evidence that poverty affects children's development significantly. This is largely to do with the fact that parents who have poor economic status are less able to cater for all their children's needs. This leads to children who do not achieve or thrive so well in school, and impacts on their development, especially their social and intellectual needs. 22 On the other hand, children who are very well off, and may have very high achieving parents, may be sometimes pushed via expectations that are not entirely compatible with the way we teach and treat children in nursery and primary schools. In care or at home The development of children who are looked after or in care can be affected by their situation in ways that often have an impact on their development. There is no specific type of development that is more likely to be affected than others; all these types of external factors are likely to impact on all areas of a child's development to some degree, and some children are more resilient than others. Children looked after are usually monitored closely by a number of services, including social services and the health service, and regular school meetings will enable teachers and support workers to ensure that they make progress in an expected way and to ensure that any issues that are spotted are dealt with as quickly as possible so that they do not have lasting effects. Prior experiences of education Some children arrive at school without any formal education. This can be due to them being from another country that perhaps does not start children in school until a bit later, or they may have been home-schooled for whatever reason. School can be something of a culture shock in these cases, and these children may need more help than others in specific areas before they can get used to their new way of education. Other times, some children may have been pushed too hard by parents who wanted them to learn to read and count before they go to school. Negative experiences of learning can happen at this very early age, and can then create challenges when the child reaches school. 2.3 25 Did you know? In 2008, a government report known as the Marmot Review was published. It looked at the impact of environmental factors on health in general, and found that the more deprived an entire neighbourhood was, the more likely it would have characteristics that could impact on health. It indicated that where there was poor housing, bad air quality, few green spaces and facilities for children to play, and more traffic risks, that health inequalities would be greater and there would be a higher risk of crime. Piaget Jean Piaget developed a constructivist theory that the way children learn and learn to think is based on their age, experiences, and their stage of development. He suggested learning through experience is built up as the child grows older, and as their experiences change and become wider, they adapt the things they believe in order to accommodate that. For example, a child whose sole experience of cake is chocolate-flavoured will believe that cake is always chocolate-flavoured, until offered cake of a different type. The new type of cake will extend their understanding of the world a little. It is important that children experience the world as widely and safely as possible because this increases their understanding of what is out there, and therefore increases their learning. Eventually, children become mature enough to consider experiences that they have not yet seen for themselves. Watson John Watson was the behaviourist psychologist who suggested that everyone is born with the same innate abilities, and that they can be taught anything, no matter how 'clever' or 'impaired' the person. He based much of his theory on a famous study by Ivan Pavlov: Pavlov's dogs were kept in cages, and every time food was brought to them, a bell would be rung. When the food appeared, the dogs salivated. After a while, Pavlov brought no food, but the bell was still rung. This resulted in the dogs salivating to the sound of the bell, despite the absence of their food. Watson's theory therefore ignored social and emotional factors of learning and development, and suggested that learning could take part as a type of training, to behave in a particular way with a given stimulus. 26 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow Abraham Maslow was a humanist who posited that individuals have certain needs that must be fulfilled in order for progression to take place. For example, children must be healthy, they must have regular access to food, and they must be able to sleep adequately before they are able to learn. They must also feel safe before this is possible. These are very basic needs, but some children go without some of their most basic needs being met, and this does affect their development significantly. Maslow's 'hierarchy of needs' pyramid is a well-known representation of his theory. It shows the most prevalent needs at the bottom of the pyramid (see diagram) because they are greater in effect and are the most urgent. 'Physiological needs' refers to the basic requirements that a child or baby has in order to survive. The next set of needs is around safety (and again, this refers to survival), which is an essential requirement that must be put before any learning or personal development can take place. Belonging and love are the needs of all human beings, but while these are important concepts for a well-developed person, they are not more important than the basic needs of survival that are represented further down the hierarchy. Esteem refers to a person's need to believe in his- or herself in order to progress in a healthy and useful way. Many adults will find that their own esteem (the way others view them) and self-esteem (the way they view themselves) is quite low and this 27 affects many areas of their ability to do things, learn new things, and move forwards with their lives. In the same way, so the development of children is also affected. Self-actualisation is the pinnacle of the developed person. This is the point where, having fully developed all the other needs that lead to guaranteed survival and healthy development, a person can confidently decide what they want, how they want to be, and how they wish to progress in the world. Bandura Similarly to Skinner's operant conditioning and Watson's behaviourist theory, Albert Bandura's theory of social learning encompasses the idea of conditioning. He understands that learning happens through observation of other people, imitating and copying what those people do, and modelling. Modelling is where someone else does what is supposed to be done in the exact way it is expected, and then children are able to imitate the model behaviour without being told what to do. This imitation means that children and young people may often copy what their parents or peers do, without instructions. To Bandura, this indicates that learning is spontaneous. Framework to support learning (humanism) Pedagogy is the theory of teaching and learning, and social pedagogy is a humanist framework upon which support for a child's development can be based. Bearing in mind Maslow's hierarchy of needs, social pedagogy takes a holistic approach to a child's needs, dealing with them through school, health, spiritual life, friendships, family, and the community. Social pedagogy places the child at the centre of their own education and development, and encourages their interaction and involvement with the world. 30 Standard measurements Assessment frameworks work alongside standard measurements in helping teachers and other professionals decide on whether or not the child has reached expected milestones of development, or if they need more assistance. Standard measurements also measure a child's physical development, so that carers and teachers can tell whether or not they are growing at the rate that is expected for their age group. Although classroom assistants are unlikely to be expected to use standard measurements – they are often used by health workers – they are useful for you to get a wider understanding of the sorts of issues and challenges that children at varying levels of development may present. Observations Observing children, their behaviour, the things they do and the way they do them, is an important part of working in a learning environment, and classroom assistants are often expected to report back to the teacher on the things they have noticed during the day. Sharing this information with the teacher means that it can also be shared with parents and carers, and helps in the general way in which everyone can work together for the child's best interests. Observations may be formal or informal; formal observations are often used to help assess children's development, while informal observations are likely to be many small things that you notice during the day or during the school year. For example, you might notice that a child who has difficulty holding his pen correctly in school also holds his dinner knife in a way that makes it harder to use. Feeding back this kind of observation to the teacher means that you can get feedback and information around child development and specific children, and it can flesh out your understanding of the job and the children that you are supporting, as well as giving the teacher additional information about the child that he or she may not have had time to notice. 31 3.2 Explain the reasons why children and young people’s development may not follow the expected pattern. Children and young people's development does not always follow the expected patterns, and there are usually reasons for this. If you become concerned about a child's development while you are working, you should always take into account the personal and external factors mentioned in ACs 2.1 and 2.2 as well as the items below. Any concerns should be addressed to the class teacher in the first instance, and from there it may be necessary to take advice from other professionals, including the SENCO if appropriate. Children and young people's development may not follow the expected pattern. Disability Disability can affect a number of areas of a child's development simultaneously, but some early interventions may be able to minimise the effects of the disability. Disabled children who are aware that they are different from others around them, and who view this in a negative light because perhaps other people have been negative about their disability, are likely to have reduced confidence in some situations, and this can affect 32 their development in social and emotional areas, even if their disability only directly affects the physical. Emotional Attachment to the main caregiver is vital for typical child development, but some children either do not form the attachment early on, or it may be disrupted; for example, if the child's mother leaves the family home, or becomes very ill. Again, confidence, and self-esteem can be affected by difficulty in making attachments, and children who have suffered a lack of attachment at home may have difficulty forming attachments and communicating adequately in a social environment such as school. Problems aside from attachment issues can also stem at home, especially where it is not a happy home life, or where there are serious situations, such as abuse. Environmental Environmental issues can cause developmental difficulties for children as mentioned in an earlier section of this unit. Poverty, safety, and the way a family is structured – for example, where the parents have split up, and both have new families with other partners - can cause difficulties for children, including social, emotional and communication problems. In families where education is not valued this can mean that a child becomes disengaged from learning very early on. Cultural Different cultures view children in different ways. It can depend on how dedicated the family is to maintaining their originating culture, but in some cultures, female children are not regarded as important as males, and this type of differentiation (which can also apply to disabled children, or those with learning difficulties) can cause self-esteem issues, as well as attainment challenges – why try when no one thinks you are worth it anyway? Some cultures may also restrict children's activities, and this may consequently restrict their development. For example, some books may be considered to be unsuitable for the child, or some types of games; playing with other children of a different gender or who belong to a different culture may also be restricted. Social Social issues include things like family poverty and work/ education expectations, and these can spread into the child's expectations; but they can also include less obvious things. For example, a family that is going through a difficult emotional time may not be able to give a child enough time to play and spend time with parents. 35 The Medical and Social Model of disability. A child's development is not just related to them and the way they deal with the world. It also has an 'incoming' effect. The attitudes of others towards disability, and the expectations that they have about disabled children can also affect a child. The idea of the 'self-fulfilling prophecy' is used in sociology to describe why black male children often underachieve; it is given to understand that the labels they see around themselves in society indicate that they are not expected to do well at school and in work; the child then fulfils the prophecy by not engaging and not thriving. The same labelling effect can happen with disability. Labelling is considered to be quite dangerous, especially when working with children who have special educational needs, because really it is the individual that is important. The disability or impairment is simply part of that person, and should be 36 accommodated along with other individualised things like allergies and likes and dislikes. Focusing on the needs of the individual rather than on the disability is the most important thing. Historically, the medical model of disability has been used in learning and health environments (see table), and it should be noted that even language that is used to describe children with disability can be restrictive to their development. For example, the word 'handicapped' used to be used to refer to someone who was disabled. However, 'handicapped' is a word that carries a negative connotation of someone who is dependent and less likely to achieve or to have a 'normal' life. The idea that the person is 'faulty' rather than being a whole individual within themselves creates an unfair and unequal way of thinking about someone who is disabled, and suggests that someone with a disability should be 'made right' or 'corrected' or 'brought into line with everyone else'. Labelling anyone in terms of their disability instead of in terms of their potential is really unhelpful for all involved. It harms the child because their expectations are reduced; it restricts the help that can be given to them, because the expectations are not there in the first place. Why try to help someone who isn't going to be able to 'get it'? (Because if you help them in a non-judgemental way, you may find that they can 'get it'). Expectations are an interesting area when it comes to education. While it is commendable and positive to expect all children regardless of ability or background to be able to achieve, it is always a good idea to be realistic about expectations. In some individual cases, a child's learning needs and their ability may be better served by the curriculum being modified. However, this should only be done in accordance with good SEN practices, and in collaboration with the SENCO, the parents and other professionals. It should not be assumed that all children with SEN will need additional support; some will not, and again, the individual factor is all important. Independence is very important to a child's ability to be confident and to branch out into areas of interest, and allowing them to get on with what they are doing if they are happy and confident and on the right track can be much more beneficial than interrupting their self-learning. 3.4 37 Explain how different types of interventions can promote positive outcomes for children and young people where development is not following the expected pattern Teaching and classroom assistants often get involved in group work that is aimed to provide interventions for children whose development is not progressing at the expected rate or pattern. These types of groups may be advised by the SENCO or they may be in conjunction with other agencies and professionals linked with the school. Multi-disciplinary teams. Social services Social worker In cases where social services have become involved with a child and their family – this may be for a variety of reasons, and may also be because the parents have asked for support – a social worker may be involved with monitoring the child's development. Social workers also work with children looked after – those who are in care – and monitor their progress through working with the school. If a school has concerns about a child's home life, they may also contact social services for advice. Youth justice workers Youth Justice teams work between schools and communities to help prevent children and young people from becoming offenders, or persistent offenders. The 40 Analyse the importance of early identification of speech, language and communication delays and disorders and the potential risks of late recognition. Language occupies a very special place within human minds, because the use of language governs our thoughts and the way in which we process information. The way we store information is also language-based, and how it is organised in our brains so that we can pull it out when it is needed. Clearly, our abilities to express ourselves is also very reliant upon language, because as humans, we use language to express a huge number of things, not least to show how we feel, what we want, what we don't want, and to explain why. Factors that affect speech, language and communication development. Early language problems The signs of a language delay may be relatively clear very early on. A baby who does not 'babble' may have hearing impairment; hearing problems may mean that they never really hear words properly, or the words may not sound like we think they do. Some conditions, such as autism, have a similar outwards effect, where the baby does not babble or imitate the parent's noises. Some children with autism never gain speech at all, while some come very late to it. 41 Some children use dummies or similar items for comfort past the age of 12 months, and this can cause difficulties with language because they often do not try out sounds and babbling noises as much as children who do not have dummies. Dummies can also result in an over-development of the muscles at the front of the child's mouth, and this may have an effect on the placement of their teeth, which can also cause an impediment to the correct formation of words. If a child is unaware that they are producing words incorrectly, this can have a knock-on effect to their writing and spelling skills, as well as their ability to express themselves adequately. Language problems at school Children who have problems communicating with others because of a language delay or disorder often have difficulties at school. This can be due partly because their ability to understand what is being communicated by the teacher or by other children may be affected; but it can also be because the way they organise their thought processes is not useful. They may also struggle to express themselves, and this can make it hard to form relationships with other people right into adulthood. As mentioned in an earlier section in this unit, an inability to express oneself adequately can lead to frustration, which is not a good state for learning, and can also disrupt other children in the class. As children move up the school, their curriculum relies on their abilities to think in more rational and abstract ways. This means that in order to succeed at school (and eventually at work), they need to be able to access their memory, and apply concepts to new situations. It is easy to see why those who have difficulties with language from an early age can be disadvantaged if interventions are not put in place. Why early recognition is important The earlier the recognition and diagnosis of language delay, the more straightforward it will be for SLTs and other professionals to target the needs of the child and provide useful support. This is one of the reasons that milestones – while they are not an exact science – are useful, because they flag up potential issues. When children who are very young experience frustration with their expression, they are unlikely to be able to identify why they feel like they do, so support workers and classroom assistants who work with them may find that they display challenging behaviour at times. If you support children with language and communication difficulties, you should be sent on training that is designed to help you work with them in a useful way, as well as being given strategies that will assist your work with them. 42 Early recognition is not really about making things easier for the professionals; it's about helping the child, who is the real focus. The early years are a time of fast development for these tiny humans, and their ability to learn will never be so open and accessible as it is at this age. Children with communication problems have a much more limited world to access, and therefore opening it up and giving them better opportunities at an earlier stage by helping them access language better is a hugely positive thing that can be done for them. 4.2 Explain how multi agency teams work together to support speech, language and communication. 45 psychologist. They usually suggest activities and additional steps that can be taken for individual pupils to improve their learning progress. Health service Speech and language therapists (SLTs) If there is a lot of need for SLTs in a school, they may be based in an office there, but otherwise, the school will have one or more SLTs who come to assess children for speech and language issues. They will normally provide a diagnosis following assessment, and will then either offer interventions, including exercises for the child to do in between appointments, or advise school and parents about the best way to support the child. 4.3 46 Explain how play and activities are used to support the development of speech, language and communication. Encouraging children to learn can be fun and playful; they don't have to sit at a desk reading textbooks to find things out. Clearly, at a very young age, most children won't be able to read much yet, but they learn naturally through interacting with each other while playing. Giving children opportunities to develop By showing an interest in the things that children say, giving them a forum to tell their ideas, and encouraging them to listen as much as they speak, school staff provide them with opportunities to learn how to communicate in both directions in a way that is not pressured or stressful. When they play together, children use language, speech and communication skills to interact with each other and to get along together. Playing in a non-competitive environment encourages their latent abilities, develops their skills, and gives them the opportunity to discover things about themselves and each other. Activities with older children Even as young adults, children still play; but as they become older, their activities become more focused on achievement. By providing them with equipment and skills to enable activities to support their 'play', their creativity can be built up and their learning broadened. Some children come with innate special talents or abilities to do certain things, such as painting and drawing, sciences or other pursuits, but in providing the opportunity for them to properly experience these things, school has a very important role. This is one of the reasons that schools are required to be inclusive, because it would be very unfair to prevent a child from learning further how to express themselves, just because the school thought they wouldn't get anything out of it. The introduction of new ideas and concepts is vital to stimulate creativity and learning, and this cannot be done without communication skills. However, the actions of learning and creating can also stimulate communication itself, so the whole process becomes something of a loop process. For example, asking a group of children to solve a problem or to design something together requires them to suggest ideas, talk each one through, come to an agreement, and make a decision. All of these things are only reached through communication. 47 Strategies to improve children's use of NVC Non-verbal communication (NVC) skills A huge amount of communication between humans is classed as 'non-verbal'. There is much that is not said during a conversation, but each person who is involved can still pick up on that information, and by the time they are adults, most children will be fluent in non-verbal communication. Some children may have more difficulty than others at learning NVC and understanding it. Autistic children are often cited as an example of this, and if you work with a child who has autism, you may notice that they often don't notice or understand non-verbal signs. Strategies for improving NVC There are some ways in which support staff can improve a child's receptivity to NVC, and at the same time these can also assist with the child's understanding in general. These range from simple gestures like pointing at objects and sharing joint attention, to gesturing in a supportive way, such as the classic thumbs-up sign, or the finger up to the lips to indicate that silence is wanted. Body language in general shows so much about our attention and interest, and modelling the most positive body language is a 50 Personal, psycho-social, and emotional changes Losing a parent, grandparent, or another member of the family or friendship circle can affect children, as well as entering or leaving care, and so on. However, other types of transition, like moving house to a different town, can also affect a child emotionally. Children's emotions are affected by the relationships they make, because these are very personal experiences in life. Where they have had some unpleasant or traumatic experiences, or even just where their lives have been disrupted in some way, their emotional development may be affected. Children who have had difficult relationships with adults, or who have suffered abuse in some form (remembering that abuse can include psychological harassment as well as physical and sexual abuse), may struggle to form trusting and healthy relationships with adults. Immaturity is sometimes a result of poor emotional development, and attention- seeking can also be another sign of it. Children can be affected by things that don't seem very important to adults, so even a neighbour dying, or someone else playing with their favourite toy, can be upsetting to them. Physically moving between activities, situations, or life events As mentioned above, physically moving house or school is a major transition, but even taking up a new activity, such as horse-riding or dancing, is a transition that will bring changes into a child's life. A small, but important physical transition that may be made daily is the moving from one activity to another. Children often become totally absorbed in whatever they are doing, and challenging behaviour can be displayed if they are moved from one activity to another. It is healthier for them and their development to make this type of transition regularly, to get used to it, partly because it broadens their experiences, and also because later on in school and work, they will be expected to be able to move from one activity to another without issues. Where a child is due to go through a big physical change, such as changing schools, gaining a new parent, or losing someone, it is helpful for the school to have advance notice so that they can adequately support the pupil. Educational and intellectual transitions 51 Moving from primary school to secondary school can be a daunting time for children, and is a big transition in their lives, but also moving up a year or into a different class can be classed as a transition. Some children worry about whether or not they will be able to keep up at 'big school' or even in the next year group. These transitions can also take place at times when a child is going through another type of transition, and should be handled in a synchronised way. For example, a child who is moving house to another town, going to a new school and it is a secondary school (where they were in primary school in the last school year) will have lots of things to worry about. Initiating discussions about the change, the things that might happen, and answering questions the pupil may have are all good ways to support them. Personal, health, and physiological changes Changes in the body, such as puberty, the development of a long-term or even mid- term illness or other type of medical condition are thought of as physiological transitions. These can also have an emotional impact. Sometimes children may be embarrassed about their physiological changes, especially during puberty, and in addition, the changes may be very slow and difficult to see at the time. They are more difficult to manage, because they tend to take place over a long time, and children and young people may not always be aware of the effects that the changes have. Teenagers and their notorious tantrums are an example of this; they don't always realise that they are behaving in this challenging way more and more, but the people they live with will! 5.2 52 Evaluate the effect on children and young people of having positive relationships during periods of transition. Normally, with an evaluation, you would set up a framework through which you would be able to measure something relatively concrete, so that you can then make informed assumptions and draw a conclusion. However, when it comes to measuring the effects of something abstract, such as positive relationships, it is reasonable to make an assumption from the start – in this case that positive relationships during transitional periods will have more positive and enabling effects on children, thus helping them cope better with transition – and then to seek to prove that assumption by looking at the different roles of important people in the lives of children, and effects that may be elicited through negative and positive versions of those relationships. By being able to identify the effects on the child, you can make a reasonable evaluation of whether or not those are positive and helpful effects. This type of analysis is very useful for you when supporting children, because it helps you identify positive and negative relationships, through the effects on the children. 55 Inability to meet a child's survival needs can be through the caregiver's own transitions, mental illness, drug misuse, dysfunctional relationships, and stress, but there are likely to be many other convoluted reasons why this can happen. It isn't likely to be on purpose in most cases, but the lack of, or disruption to an attachment during a transition can be identified by people external to the family unit, such as professionals at school and social workers, and is a cause for concern. The role of the teacher and support staff at school Teachers and support staff are in a very strong position to reinforce good aspects of the attachment role, and can help to contain the types of anxiety and stress that a transitioning child may go through. By reading the signals given them by children, and interpreting them correctly, a teacher can respond sensitively to the child's needs. Simply instructing them to 'pull themselves together' suggests a lack of sensitivity, and will solve no issues at all. Someone under stress of any kind is likely to desire the ability to pull themselves together, and if they could, they would! Helping pupils struggling with transitioning For example, an overwhelmed pupil who has difficulties at home may display challenging behaviour in the form of class disruption, tantrums, and destruction. However, punishing her for these things avoids dealing with the problem at its root, and a teacher or classroom assistant working to support the child through a difficult time might be more successful in talking with the pupil, drawing her out privately, and having a discussion that seeks to find out what the issues are, rather than trying to stop the behaviour happening again. Providing opportunities to talk about the transition, the way a child feels about things, and suggesting strategies that could make things easier for them are all good ways to support them, and this in itself, demonstrates the sort of thing that a positive relationship should bring about. Other ways in which a school can help a child make a transition is, for example, through taking them to visit a new school or a new classroom, demonstrating activities before the class does them, and even liaising with older pupils who have already been through the transition (such as moving up a class) so that relationships are built up prior to the transition event. 56 Relationships built up at school cannot fully take the place of a good attachment at home, but they can back up that attachment, and strengthen the child's resilience to change and transition. Case Study Caleb is a 14-year-old boy who likes to fit in with his friends. When he instigated a food fight between 50 kids during lunchtime at school, he was taken to the Head Teacher, who asked him if there had been any changes at home that he should know about. Caleb didn't respond, and just chewed gum in an insolent manner, so the head didn't know that the teenager's father had left his mother again. The head was aware that Caleb's parents had had a difficult relationship over the years, including domestic abuse, and that Caleb had been hospitalised once by his father when he was a toddler. He asked Caleb if there had been any violence in the home, but again, Caleb wouldn't respond. In the absence of information to aid his understanding of the situation, the Head suspended Caleb for a week, warned him that any further disruption would lead to him being expelled, and called his mother to come and collect him from school. Caleb's mother said she couldn't come until the end of the day because she was working, and that there was no point in ringing Caleb's father. She didn't explain why. While Caleb was sitting in the waiting room, awaiting further instructions, he heard some crying in the corridor and someone else saying something in a low but intense voice. He stepped out into the corridor just in time to see a sixth former throw a Year 7 pupil against the wall. Caleb ran straight up to the pair and punched the sixth former who fell to the ground. The Year 7 pupil ran off down the corridor to get away. Caleb kicked him to make sure he stayed down. Just then, the Head and his secretary rushed out of the office to see the final kick … and Caleb was immediately told that he would be expelled. Caleb was very angry. He tried to explain what happened, but was taken back into the office while the sixth former was taken to get his injuries looked at. The Head refused to listen to Caleb's 'excuses' and told him to wait in the office until his mother came for him at 3:30. 57 Assessor Notes • Although the Head was aware that Caleb's family had a history of problems, he was unable to get the relevant information from the pupil by himself. Someone more suitable, such as an adult that Caleb was comfortable with, or a woman, may have been a better person to find out what the problems were. • Caleb's refusal to talk about his problems may have indicated that there were issues that needed looking at before punishment was applied. • The Head's refusal to listen to Caleb after he tried to explain about the incident in the corridor meant that Caleb was not given a voice on his own situation. Did you know? Attachment theory is a psychological theory that was posited by John Bowlby. It is based on the idea that infants need a place of safety – the 'secure base' – which is provided by the primary caregiver. The secondary part of it is called the 'secure enough' attachment, where a child has enough freedom to explore, but has enough security to be supported and protected. It is a complex theory that seeks to understand the effects of a damaged or dysfunctional attachment in comparison to those of a good or healthy type, and is a very useful model for understanding the complexities of challenging behaviour.