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Status and Role
UNIT 12 SOCIALISATION*
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Socialisation – Meaning and Definitions
12.2.1 What is Socialisation? 12.2.2 Some Definitions of Socialisation
12.3 Types of Socialisation
12.3.1 Primary Socialisation 12.3.2 Secondary Socialisation 12.3.3 Gender Socialisation 12.3.4 Anticipatory Socialisation 12.3.5 Re-socialisation 12.3.6 Adult Socialisation
12.4 Theories of Socialisation
12.4.1 George Herbert Mead and the Development of Self 12.4.2 Charles Horton Cooley and the Looking Glass Self 12.4.3 Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory
12.5 Agents of Socialisation
12.5.1 Family 12.5.2 Peer Groups 12.5.3 School 12.5.4 Mass Media
12.6 Let Us Sum Up
12.7 References
12.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
Define socialisation; Identify some of the main thinkers contributing to studies on socialisation; Distinguish the various types of socialisation; and Identify agents of socialisation and how they affect your personality.
12.1 INTRODUCTION
We will begin this unit by focusing on the meaning and definition of socialisation. The discussion will be carried forward by looking at the types and theories of socialisation. Finally we will end the discussion by examining the various agents of socialisation. This unit, thereby, will provide an in-depth understanding of socialisation.
- This Unit is contributed by Bianca Daw, Research Scholar, JNU.
Basic Concepts
12.2 SOCIALISATION – MEANING AND
DEFINITIONS
12.2.1 What is Socialisation?
Socialisation is an important process for the functioning and continuation of society. Different societies have different ways and methods to train their new born members so that they are able to develop their own personalities. This training ofand building the personality of the child is called socialisation. Socialisation is a process of learning rules, habits and values of a group to which a person belongs whether it is family, friends, colleagues or any other group. It is the process by which a child slowly becomes aware of her/himself as a member of a group and gains knowledge about the culture of the family and also the society into which she/he is born.
Socialisation is also considered as the passing of culture from one generation to the next. During the process of socialisation, children learn about their family traditions from their elders and preserve them and pass them on to the next generation as they grow older. Socialisation helps children to learn and perform the different roles and responsibilities which they have learnt from their elders. It therefore, helps to associate one generation with the others (Giddens, 2006; Jonson, 1960).
12.2.2 Some Definitions of Socialisation
i) Anthony Giddens: “Socialisation refers to the process which transforms a quite helpless human infant into a self-aware, knowledgeable person who is skilled in the ways of their society’s culture” (2014:263-64).
ii) Peter Worsley: ”By this is meant, simply, the transmission of culture, the process whereby men learn the rules and practices of social groups. Socialisation is an aspect of all activity within all human societies” (1972:153).
iii) Tony Bilton: “The process by which we acquire the culture of the society into which we are born - the process by which we acquire our social characteristics and learn the ways of thought and behaviour considered appropriate in our society - is called socialisation” (1981:10).
12.3 TYPES OF SOCIALISATION
Socialisation is a process that continues throughout life from birth till adulthood. However, there are different phases in which the process takes place. These phases are usually spread across different age groups and have been categorised as the different types of socialisation.
12.3.1 Primary Socialisation
Primary socialisation is the most important feature in the process of socialisation. It happens during infancy and childhood. The primary stage basically takes shape during infancy and childhood where basic knowledge and language or behaviour is taught. This phase of socialisation usually takes place
Basic Concepts (^) by the person her/himself when one does not want be recognised as a male or a
female. In some societies where three or more genders are recognised, we can find the use of the term third gender. This is usually associated with the gender role that a person performs and in some societies the gender roles are not very strictly defined. The term third gender is often used to describe hijras in the context of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. More recently the term third gender is also associated with the term Queer wherein any person not willing to be strictly identified as male or female may be categorised as a Queer person (Towle and Morgan, 2002).
12.3.4 Anticipatory Socialisation
The term anticipatory socialisation was introduced by the sociologist Robert K. Merton (1957). It is a process by which someone is consciously socialised for future occupations, positions and social relationships. Through anticipatory socialisation people are socialised into groups to which they wish to or have to join so that entry into the group does not seem to be very difficult. Some people suggest that parents are the primary source of anticipatory socialisation when it comes to socialising their children for future careers or social roles. For example , a child made to leave home to stay in a boarding school with the anticipation of better socialisation.
12.3.5 Re-socialisation
Re-socialisation refers to the process of leaving certain behaviour patterns and roles in order to adopt new ones as part of one’s evolution in life. Resocialisation occurs when there is a major transformation in the social role of a person. It occurs throughout life where individuals experience radical breakthroughs from their past experiences and learn new manners and values which are starkly different from what they had learnt previously.Sociologist Erving Goffman analyzed resocialization in mental asylum. According to him a mental asylum is a total institution in which almost every aspect of the resident’s life was controlled by the institution in order to serve the goals of the institution. For example , the institution demands that every inmate obeys the rules and regulations even if it is not very useful for the person (Fergusan, 2002; Kennedy et al, 1973). Another common example is that of a girl who is about to get married is often re-socialisedby suggestions and advice from her parents on different matters so that after marriage it is easier for her to adjust in her husband’s home with her in-laws.
12.3.6 Adult Socialisation
Adult socialisation takes place in adulthood when individuals adapt to new roles such asthat of a husband, a wife or an employee. This is related to their needs and wants.People continue to learn values and behaviour patterns throughout life. Socialisation does not have any fixed time period. It begins at birth and continues till old age. In traditional societies the older people had a significant influence in important matters related to the family. Both male and female adults had exerted their influence with increase in age (Mortimer and Simmons, 1978).
In modern times we can find this elderly influence decreasing in some families. However, that is not to say that older people have completely lost their authority in the modern day families. Even today their opinions are sought for certain
important matters. Like the younger generation continues to be socialised by^ Socialisation their adults similarly the older generation also gets socialised by their younger generation through different experiences. Apart from the family adult — socialisation continues to take place through other agents of socialisation. For example , one’s workplace, social groups, senior citizens’ forums, clubs for recreation and some religious institutions also.
Check Your Progress 1
- What are some of the important characteristics of Socialisation?
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- Give one prominent definition of socialisation?
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- Write a small note on the types of socialisation by explaining how the different types are spread across different age groups throughout life. ..................................................................................................................
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12.4 THEORIES OF SOCIALISATION
Some of the most well-known theories in sociology and psychology agree that the ‘self’ is the primary concept in the development of the child and it is through the process of socialisation that such a development takes place. Therefore, let us look at some prominent theories of socialisation in order to understand the concept well.
12.4.1 Mead and his Theory of the Development of Self
According to the American sociologist George Herbert Mead (1972), young children begin to develop as social beings by imitating the actions of those near
to imagine how in another person’s mind we might appear through our behaviours,^ Socialisation manners, and so on. As a result, in our imagination we form an opinion about ourselves through the other person’s perceptions and may get positively or negatively affected by it. For example , a child who is in the mood to create some mischief might want to lie to her/his parents. However, before creating the mischief the child might reflect over and think that if hislie is caught that will have a bad impression on her/his parents about her/him.
According to Cooley, there are three main features that make up the idea of the self. The first consists of our imagination of how we appear to the other person. The second feature consists of our imagination of the judgement that the other person makes by our appearances. The third feature consists of some feeling of self-importance, shame or self-doubt based on the imagination of the other person’s judgements about our appearances.
12.4.3 Freud and his Psychoanalytic Theory
The Austrian neurologist and father of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud (1923a in Strachey, 1961)believes socialisation demands that individuals must do away with their selfish wants for the benefit of the larger society. According to him socialisation is a process that directs one’s cravings and instincts in ways that are culturally accepted by the society. He has explained the process of socialisation through three distinguishable parts of the personality: “ id ”, “ ego ” and “ superego ”.
The “ id ” consists of all kinds of basic impulses. It is the unconscious, selfish, impulsive and illogical part of the personality that always tries to increase the feeling of pleasure by avoiding pain. The “id” tries to make a person work towards achieving the selfish desires by not paying any heed to other individuals or social rules and standards. For example , a child craving for a second helping of dessert screamed constantly until she was given another serving.
The “ ego ” is the referee between the “id” and the “superego”. It tries to maintain a balance between the “id” (basic impulses) and the “superego” (norms of the society). The “ego” tries to regulate our desires and cravings and helps us to obey the norms of society. As a referee the “ego” tries to control our impulses according to the norms of the society. For example , we often get tempted by discount offers in the shopping malls and feel like purchasing as much as we can. However, we restrict ourselves to buying just a few products because we realize that buying everything at once might not be a practical thing to do.This process of adjustment among the “id”, “ego” and “superego” continues throughout life. This adjustment is the principle means of socialisation.
The “ superego ” refers to the principles, rules and ethics that one learns through the process of socialisation. The “superego” comprises of the norms of a society which are internalised through socialisation. The “superego” is the inner voice (‘conscience’) of the individual and inthat inner voice the hopes, beliefs and guidelines of the society are organised. For example , Ruchiwas eager to steal some grocery from the store without anyone noticing her. But, because she knew that stealing is not the right thing to do so she did not steal even though she would have never got caught.The “id” and the “superego” are always opposed to each other because neither is it always possible to fulfil all our wishes and demands nor is it easy to keep ourselves completely away from our cravings.
Basic Concepts (^) Check Your Progress 2
- According to Mead, how does the social self of a child develop? .....................................................................................................................
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- According to Cooley what is the meaning of ‘looking glass self’? .....................................................................................................................
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- What are the different parts of the personality and how are they associated with socialisation according to Freud? .....................................................................................................................
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12.5 AGENTS OF SOCIALISATION
The process of socialisation is not just limited to the family. It consists of a range of groups and institutions through which people learn the culture of their society. As already mentioned the family is the primary agent of socialisation while some of the important secondary agents of socialisation include the peer group, school and the mass media.
Frønesargues that, “ Primary socialisation was implicitly understood as taking place in the family and during the first part of childhood. In this perspective the socialising agents in the primary process are the parents, especially the mother. Secondary socialisation came later and was related to agents as significant others, educational institutions and the media” (Frønes, 2016: 4).
12.5.1 Family
Parents along with the family are the most important agents of socialisation. Within the family it is the mother who first begins to socialise the child. Socialisation in basic values such as love and affection, manners and etiquettes are first taught in the family. In a joint family structure apart from the parents, uncles,aunts,grandparents also play important roles to socialise the children.
Basic Concepts (^) it also helps to develop critical thinking abilities. Broadly speaking, the school
helps in the overall development of the child and in the diffusion of culture of the society. The role of the teacher becomes very important within such a setting.
Frønesargues that, for many children the teacher becomes a secondary socializing agent. However, for many others, the teacher can have primary functions. Hence, the borders between primary and secondary socialisation get blurred in such cases. He further says that, “although schools and the dissemination of their curricula in general is understood as part of secondary socialisation, in the knowledge-based economies the fundamental numerical and alphabetical skills provided by the schools could also be defined as belonging to primary socialisation”. In this way, it is suggested that the ‘hidden curriculum’ of cultural codes suggests that the major educational institutions influence young people through more than just the mediation of the formal curriculum (Frønes, 2016:4).
Overall, the role of the school can be attributed as equally important with respect to the family when it comes to socialisation of the children. A recently popular film, Hindi Medium vividly demonstrates this aspect wherein in contemporary societies; parents tend to over-rely on the school setting for socialisation.
12.5.4 Mass Media
Mass media includes various agents of communication for instance, the radio, television, newspapers, magazines, media portals and websites and the like. Prot et.al. (2015) argue that in this age of electronic media, children are provided with a variety of new learning opportunities which broaden the range of events children experience. As a consequence, it is witnessed that socialisation is no longer primarily or secondarily dependent to the influences of family, peers or other such agencies (Prot et.al, 2015: 276). Frønesfurther contends that our contemporary social realities and myths are given a visual as well asa narrative form through the media, and in this respect the modern social media illustrate how the medium shapes the message. He gives the example of Facebook’s architecture which “encourages various presentations of taste, identity and popularity assessment, structuring both the form and content of the communication” (Frønes, 2016: 21).
Over the years television has become the greatest source of influence especially for children, when compared to the other tools of communication. There are different kinds of programmes that are available on the television ranging from serials, movies, cartoons to news, music, fashion, food, history and geography that cater to people belonging to different age groups. However, Protet. al. (2015:
- reiterate that, violent media exposure is a causal risk factor for aggression. Television programmes for children especially cartoons, portray high levels of violent acts and episodes of different types. Although children might remain passive to such depiction of violence yet these can affect them in the form of nightmares and/or feelings of uncertainty and fear. Apart from this, certain forms of music, films or even violent video games may have such attributes. For example, Prot et.al attest that, racing video games such as Need for Speed , Burnout , and Road Rash, which can be rewarding for players, can be causes for reckless or violent driving. However, they also suggest that playing prosocial characters in nonviolent video games such as Super Mario Sunshine can lead to significant decrease in hurtful behaviour and increase in helpful behaviours (Prot
et.al, 2015: 286). Hence, the media plays a very important role in the process of^ Socialisation socialisation by moulding our understanding of the world around us.
Check Your Progress 3
- Discuss the role of family and the school as agents of primary and secondary socialisation respectively. .....................................................................................................................
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- Give two examples of peer group socialisation.
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- Explain how media can have negative impacts on socialisation.
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12.6 LET US SUM UP
In this unit we have studied the various dimensions of socialisation. We began by understanding the meaning and nature of socialisation which included some definitions. We learnt about various types of socialisationand then we moved on to study some of the most important theories of socialisation. In this unit we have also seen that there are many agents of socialisation and how each one of them plays an important role in the process of socialisation.
12.7 REFERENCES
Abraham, M. F. (2014). Contemporary Sociology: An Introduction to Concepts and Theories (2nd^ Edition). Oxford University Press.
Bilton, T. (1981). Introductory Sociology. London: The Macmillan Press Ltd.
Bukowski, W.M. et al. (2015). ‘Socialization and Experiences with Peers’. In Grusec, J.E. and Hastings, P.D. Handbook of Socialization: Theory and Research. Pp-228. Guilford Press.
