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Memory: A High School Psychology Study Guide, Lecture notes of Psychology

Psychology

THE PHENOMENON OF MEMORY. OBJECTIVE 1: Define memory, and explain how flashbulb memories differ from other memories. 1. Learning that persists over time ...

Typology: Lecture notes

2021/2022

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THE PHENOMENON OF MEMORY
OBJECTIVE 1: Define memory, and explain how flashbulb
memories differ from other memories.
1. Learning that persists over time indicates the existence
of _____MEMORY___________ for that learning.
2. Memories for surprising, significant moments that are
especially clear are called _____FLASHBULB______
memories. Like other memories, these
_______CAN____________ memories (can/cannot) err.
OBJECTIVE 2: Describe Atkinson-Shiffrin’s classic three-
stage processing model of memory, and explain how the
contemporary model of working memory differs.
3. Both human memory and computer memory can be
viewed as _____INFORMATION_____-
___PROCESSING__________ systems that perform three
tasks: _____ENCODING_______,
______STORAGE________, and
___RETRIEVAL____________.
4. The classic model of memory has been Atkinson and
Shiffrin’s ________THREE________-
________STAGE_________ ______PROCESSING______
model. According to this model, we first record
information as a fleeting ______SENSORY_______
______MEMORY__________, from which it is processed
into _______SHORT_________ -
_____TERM____________ memory, where the
information is _______ENCODED______ through
rehearsal into _______LONG_________ -
_______TERM__________ memory for later retrieval.
5. The phenomenon of short-term memory has been
clarified by the concept of ______WORKING________
memory, which focuses more on the processing of briefly
stored information. This form of memory has both
____AUDITORY______ and _____VISUAL_______ -
_____SPATIAL_____ subsystems, which are coordinated
by a _____CENTRAL_____ ____EXECUTIVE_____
processor that, with the help of the
______EPISODIC________ buffer, allows us to process
images and words ______SIMULTANEOUSLY______.
6. Brain scans show that the ____FRONTAL_____
___LOBES_______ are active during complex thinking,
whereas areas in the ____PARIETAL______ and the
______TEMPORAL______ _______LOBES______ are
active when auditory and visual information is in working
memory.
ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION IN
OBJECTIVE 3: Describe the types of information we encode
automatically.
1. Encoding that does not require conscious attention or
effort is called _____AUTOMATIC___
____PROCESSING_____. Some processing requires
effort at first but with ______PRACTICE______ and
____EXPERIENCE_______ it becomes effortless.
Give examples of material that is typically encoded with
little or no effort.
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING INCLUDES THE ENCODING OF
INFORMATION ABOUT SPACE, TIME, AND FREQUENCY. IT ALSO
INCLUDES THE ENCODING OF WORD MEANING, A TYPE OF
ENCODING THAT APPEARS TO BE LEARNED.
OBJECTIVE 4: Contrast effortful processing with automatic
processing, and discuss the next-in-line effect, the spacing
effect, and the serial position effect.
2. Encoding that requires attention and effort is called
___EFFORTFUL_____ ______PROCESSING_____.
3. With novel information, conscious repetition, or
______REHEARSAL____, boosts memory.
4. A pioneering researcher in verbal memory was
______EBBINGHAUS____. In one experiment, he found
that the longer he studied a list of nonsense syllables,
the ____FEWER__________ (fewer/greater) the number
of repetitions he required to learn it later.
5. After material has been learned, additional repetition, or
____OVERLEARNING____, usually will increase retention.
6. When people go around a circle reading words, their
poorest memories are for the ______MOST________
(least/most) recent information heard. This
phenomenon is called the ______NEXT________ -
_______IN___________ - _________LINE_______effect.
7. Memory studies also reveal that distributed rehearsal is
more effective for retention; this is called the
___SPACING_________ _______EFFECT_______.
8. The tendency to remember the first and last items in a
list best is called the _____SERIAL_______
____POSITION__________ ______EFFECT_________.
Following a delay, first items are better remembered
______BETTER________ (better/less well) than last
items.
OBJECTIVE 5: Compare the benefits of visual, acoustic, and
semantic encoding in remembering verbal information,
and describe a memory-enhancing strategy related to the
self-reference effect.
9. Encoding the meaning of words is referred to as
____SEMANTIC________ encoding; encoding by sound is
called ______ACOUSTIC______ encoding.
10. Craik and Tulving’s study comparing visual, acoustic, and
semantic encoding showed that memory was best with
______SEMANTIC_____ encoding.
UNIT 7A: MEMORY
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THE PHENOMENON OF MEMORY

OBJECTIVE 1: Define memory , and explain how flashbulb memories differ from other memories.

  1. Learning that persists over time indicates the existence of _____MEMORY___________ for that learning.
  2. Memories for surprising, significant moments that are especially clear are called _____FLASHBULB______ memories. Like other memories, these _______CAN____________ memories (can/cannot) err.

OBJECTIVE 2: Describe Atkinson-Shiffrin’s classic three- stage processing model of memory, and explain how the contemporary model of working memory differs.

  1. Both human memory and computer memory can be viewed as _____INFORMATION_____- ___PROCESSING__________ systems that perform three tasks: _____ENCODING_______, ______STORAGE________, and ___RETRIEVAL____________.
  2. The classic model of memory has been Atkinson and Shiffrin’s ________THREE________- ________STAGE_________ ______PROCESSING______ model. According to this model, we first record information as a fleeting ______SENSORY_______ ______MEMORY__________, from which it is processed into _______SHORT_________ - _____TERM____________ memory, where the information is _______ENCODED______ through rehearsal into _______LONG_________ - _______TERM__________ memory for later retrieval.
  3. The phenomenon of short-term memory has been clarified by the concept of ______WORKING________ memory, which focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information. This form of memory has both ____AUDITORY______ and _____VISUAL_______ - _____SPATIAL_____ subsystems, which are coordinated by a _____CENTRAL_____ ____EXECUTIVE_____ processor that, with the help of the ______EPISODIC________ buffer, allows us to process images and words ______SIMULTANEOUSLY______.
  4. Brain scans show that the ____FRONTAL_____ ___LOBES_______ are active during complex thinking, whereas areas in the ____PARIETAL______ and the ______TEMPORAL______ _______LOBES______ are active when auditory and visual information is in working memory.

ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION IN OBJECTIVE 3: Describe the types of information we encode automatically.

  1. Encoding that does not require conscious attention or effort is called _____AUTOMATIC___

____PROCESSING_____. Some processing requires effort at first but with ______PRACTICE______ and ____EXPERIENCE_______ it becomes effortless.

Give examples of material that is typically encoded with little or no effort. AUTOMATIC PROCESSING INCLUDES THE ENCODING OF INFORMATION ABOUT SPACE, TIME, AND FREQUENCY. IT ALSO INCLUDES THE ENCODING OF WORD MEANING, A TYPE OF ENCODING THAT APPEARS TO BE LEARNED.

OBJECTIVE 4: Contrast effortful processing with automatic processing, and discuss the next-in-line effect, the spacing effect, and the serial position effect.

  1. Encoding that requires attention and effort is called ___EFFORTFUL_____ ______PROCESSING_____.
  2. With novel information, conscious repetition, or ______REHEARSAL____, boosts memory.
  3. A pioneering researcher in verbal memory was ______EBBINGHAUS____. In one experiment, he found that the longer he studied a list of nonsense syllables, the ____FEWER__________ (fewer/greater) the number of repetitions he required to learn it later.
  4. After material has been learned, additional repetition, or ____OVERLEARNING____, usually will increase retention.
  5. When people go around a circle reading words, their poorest memories are for the ______MOST________ (least/most) recent information heard. This phenomenon is called the ______NEXT________ - _______IN___________ - _________LINE_______effect.
  6. Memory studies also reveal that distributed rehearsal is more effective for retention; this is called the ___SPACING_________ _______EFFECT_______.
  7. The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list best is called the _____SERIAL_______ ____POSITION__________ ______EFFECT_________. Following a delay, first items are better remembered ______BETTER________ (better/less well) than last items.

OBJECTIVE 5: Compare the benefits of visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding in remembering verbal information, and describe a memory-enhancing strategy related to the self-reference effect.

  1. Encoding the meaning of words is referred to as ____SEMANTIC________ encoding; encoding by sound is called ______ACOUSTIC______ encoding.
  2. Craik and Tulving’s study comparing visual, acoustic, and semantic encoding showed that memory was best with ______SEMANTIC_____ encoding.

UNIT 7A: MEMORY

  1. Our excellent recall of information that relates to ourselves is called the _______SELF_______ - _____REFERENCE________ effect.

OBJECTIVE 6: Explain how encoding imagery aids effortful processing, and describe some memory-enhancing strategies that use visual encoding.

  1. Memory that consists of mental pictures is based on the use of ____IMAGERY________. Because they tend to be highly memorable, they aid _______EFFORTFUL______ ___PROCESSING___________.
  2. Concrete, high-imagery words tend to be remembered ______BETTER________ (better/less well) than abstract, low-imagery words.
  3. Memory for concrete nouns is facilitated when we encode them _____SEMANTICALLY______ and ____VISUALLY________.
  4. Our tendency to recall the high points of pleasurable events such as family vacations illustrates the phenomenon of ________ROSY_______ ___RETROSPECTION_______.
  5. Memory aids are known as _____MNEMONIC_______ devices. One such device involves forming associations between a familiar series of locations and to-be- remembered words; this technique is called the “______METHOD______ _________OF________ ______LOCI___________.”
  6. Using a jingle, such as the one that begins “one is a bun,” is an example of the “_____PEG_________ - ______WORD_______” system.

OBJECTIVE 7: Discuss the use of chunking and hierarchies in effortful processing.

  1. Memory may be aided by grouping information into meaningful units called _______CHUNKS______. An example of this technique involves forming words from the first letters of to-be-remembered words; the resulting word is called an ____ACROYNM________.
  2. In addition, material may be processed into _____HIIERARCHIES_________, which are composed of a few broad concepts divided into lesser concepts, categories and facts.

STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION OBJECTIVE 8: Contrast two types of sensory memory.

  1. Stimuli from the environment are first recorded in _____SENSORY_______ memory.
  2. George Sperling found that when people were briefly shown three rows of letters, they could recall ______ABOUT HALF______ (virtually all/about half) of them. When Sperling sounded a tone immediately after a row of letters was flashed to indicate which letters were to be recalled, the subjects were much ________MORE_______ (more/less) accurate. This suggests that people have a brief photographic, or

______ICONIC________, memory lasting about a few tenths of a second.

  1. Sensory memory for sounds is called ______ECHOIC________ memory. This memory fades ______LESS___________ (more/less) rapidly than photographic memory, lasting for as long as ___3 OR 4 SECONDS______.

OBJECTIVE 9: Describe the duration and working capacity of short-term memory.

  1. Peterson and Peterson found that when ___REHEARSAL______ was prevented by asking subjects to count backward, memory for letters was gone after 12 seconds. Without _______ACTIVE_______ processing, short-term memories have a limited life.
  2. Our short-term memory capacity is about ______7________ chunks of information. This capacity was discovered by ______GEORGE MILLER____.
  3. Short-term memory for random _______DIGITS_________ (digits/letters) is slightly better than for random ______LETTERS__________ (digits/letters), and memory for information we hear is somewhat ______BETTER________ (better/worse) than that for information we see.
  4. Both children and adults have short-term recall for roughly as many words as they can speak in ______2________ (how many?) seconds.

OBJECTIVE 10: Describe the capacity and duration of long- term memory.

  1. In contrast to short-term memory – and contrary to popular belief – the capacity of permanent memory is essentially ___UNLIMITED (LIMITLESS)______.
  2. Penfield’s electrically stimulated patients ______DO NOT_______ (do/do not) provide reliable evidence that our stored memories are precise and durable.
  3. Psychologist _____KARL LASHLEY_________ attempted to locate memory by cutting out pieces of rats’ _______CORTEXES________ after they had learned a maze. He found that no matter where he cut, the rats ____REMEMBERED____ (remembered/forgot) the maze.
  4. It is likely that forgetting occurs because new experiences _______INTERFERE______ with our retrieval of old information, and the physical memory trace ______DECAYS________ with the passage of time.

OBJECTIVE 11: Discuss the synaptic changes that accompany memory formation and storage.

  1. Researchers believe that memory involves a strengthening of certain neural connections, which occurs at the _______SYNAPSES___________ between neurons.

OBJECTIVE 16: Cite some ways that context can affect retrieval.

  1. Studies have shown that retention is best when learning and testing are done in _____THE SAME___ (the same/different) contexts.

Summarize the text explanation of the déjà vu experience. THE DÉJÀ VU EXPERIENCE IS MOST LIKELY THE RESULT OF BEING IN A CONTEXT SIMILAR TO ONE THAT WE HAVE ACTUALLY BEEN IN BEFORE. IF WE HAVE PREVIOUSLY BEEN IN A SIMILAR SITUATION, THOUGH WE CANNOT RECALL WHAT IT WAS, THE CURRENT SITUATION MAY PRESENT CURES THAT UNCONSCIOUSLY HELP US TO RETRIEVE THE EARLIER EXPERIENCE.

OBJECTIVE 17: Describe the effects of internal states on retrieval.

  1. The type of memory in which emotions serve as retrieval cues is referred to as ________STATE______ - ____DEPENDENT________ memory.
  2. Our tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with our current emotional state is called _____MOOD__________ - ____CONGRUENT_______ memory. Describe the effects of mood on memory. WHEN HAPPY, FOR EXAMPLE, WE PERCEIVE THINGS IN A POSITIVE LIGHT AND RECALL HAPPY EVENTS; THESE PERCEPTIONS AND MEMORIES, IN TURN, PROLONG OUR GOOD MOOD. MOODS ALSO INFLUENCE HOW WE INTERPRET OTHER PEOPLE’S BEHAVIOR.
  3. People who are currently depressed may recall their parents as _____REJECTING, PUNITIVE AND GUILT- PROMOTING_____. People who have recovered from depression typically recall their parents about the same as do people who_____HAVE NEVER SUFFERED DEPRESSION_____. Moods also influence how we _____INTERPRET______ other people’s behavior.

FORGETTING OBJECTIVE 18: Explain why we should value our ability to forget, and distinguish three general ways our memory fails us.

  1. Without the ability to ___FORGET_____, we would constantly be overwhelmed by information.
  2. Memory researcher Daniel Schacter has identified the seven sins of memory, divided into three categories that identify the ways in which our memory can fail: the three sins of _____FORGETTING_________, the three sins of _____DISTORTION________, and the one sin of _____INTRUSION_________.

OBJECTIVE 19: Discuss the role of encoding failure in forgetting.

  1. The first type of forgetting is caused by ______ENCODING______ failure.
  2. This type of forgetting occurs because some of the information that we sense never actually ENTERS THE MEMORY SYSTEM_.
  3. One reason for age-related memory decline is that the brain areas responsible for ____ENCODING_____ new information are _____LESS_____ (more/less) responsive in older adults.

OBJECTIVE 20: Discuss the concept of storage decay, and describe Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve.

  1. Studies by Ebbinghaus and by Bahrick indicate that most forgetting occurs ______SOON_________ (soon/ a long time) after the material is learned.
  2. This type of forgetting is known as ____STORAGE______ _______DECAY______, which may be caused by a gradual fading of the physical ____MEMORY_________ _____TRACE______.
  3. When information that is stored in memory temporarily cannot be found, ______RETRIEVAL________ failure has occurred.

OBJECTIVE 21: Contrast proactive and retroactive interference, and explain how they can cause retrieval failure.

  1. Research suggests that memories are also lost as a result of _____INTERFERENCE_______, which is especially possible if we simultaneously learn similar, new material.
  2. The disruptive effect of previous learning on current learning is called PROACTIVE_ INTERFERENCE_. This disruptive effect of learning new material on efforts to recall material previously learned is called RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE.
  3. Jenkins and Dallenbach found that if subjects went to sleep after learning, their memory for a list of nonsense syllables was _____BETTER_________ (better/worse) than it was if they stayed awake.
  4. In some cases, old information facilitates our learning of new information. This is called _____POSITIVE______ ___TRANSFER__________.

OBJECTIVE 22: Summarize Freud’s concept of repression, and state whether this view is reflected in current memory research.

  1. Freud proposed that motivated forgetting, or _____REPRESSION____, may protect a person from painful memories.
  2. Increasing numbers of memory researchers think that motivated forgetting is _____LESS_________ (less/more) common than Freud believed.
  1. Emotions and their associated _____STRESS_____ hormones generally _____STRENGTHEN_______ memories.

MEMORY CONSTRUCTION OBJECTIVE 23: Explain how misinformation and imagination cannot distort our memory of an event.

  1. Research has shown that recall of an event is often influenced by past experiences and present assumptions. The workings of these influences illustrate the process of memory _____CONSTRUCTION________.
  2. When witnesses to an event receive misleading information about it, they may experience a ____MISINFORMATION_______ __EFFECT_______ and misremember the event. A number of experiments have demonstrated that false memories _____CAN__________ (can/cannot) be created when people are induced to imagine nonexistent events; that is, these people later experience “____IMAGINATION_____ ____INFLATION_____.” People who believe they have recovered memories of alien abduction and child sex abuse tend to have _____VIVID________ ____IMAGINATIONS______.