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Unit IX - Answer Key
Developmental Psychology
Module 45 - Developmental Issues, Prenatal Development, and the Newborn
While You Read 45-
1. Answers will vary. Students may mention that their intelligence or personality is determined in part by their genes and in part by their environment. 2. Answers will vary. Students may mention that they grew steadily or perhaps grew 6 inches in only a few months. They may explain that they quickly came to understand abstract concepts like heartbreak or loss or love after a life experience. 3. Answers will vary. Students may mention that their interests in sports, music, courses or food preferences which have remained stable or they may mention these same factors that have changed or perhaps they have lost interest in these over times. 4. In terms of temperament, out of control 3-year-olds were more likely to become teen smokers, adult criminals or out of control gamblers. 5. Social attitudes have been found to change over time and are quite impressionable during adolescence. Risk taking behavior generally reduces over time.
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1. Zygotic: The fertilized egg undergoes cell division and specialization of structure and function. About 10 days after conception, the zygote attaches to the uterine wall.
Embryotic: This time period from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month, involves organ formation, the initiation of the heartbeat, arm and leg buds, facial features, etc. Fetal: This stage last from about 9 weeks until birth. During this stage, organ development continues, brain growth continues, and the fetus becoming responsive to sound.
2. Newborn babies prefer their mothers voice to other voices as well as their mother`s language(s). Newborn babies crying seems to be adapted to the language they heard in the womb, with French babies crying with a rising intonation and German babies crying with a falling intonation. 3. A teratogen is an agent that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. Some examples include viruses, drugs, and alcohol. 4. When a pregnant woman drinks, the alcohol enters her bloodstream as well as the fetus’. It depresses activity in both their central nervous systems. It also primes the woman’s offspring to like alcohol and may put them at risk for heavy drinking and alcohol use disorder in their teens. 1. Rooting reflex: When something touches their cheek, babies turn towards that touch, open their mouth, and vigorously root for a nipple. Sucking: When a baby finds a nipple, it starts a coordinated sequence of other reflexes that compose the sucking reflex: tonguing, swallowing, and breathing. Startle: The baby’s arms and legs spring out away from the body, quickly followed by fist clenching and loud crying.
lead to low birth weight, birth defects, future behavioral problems and lower intelligence. This may also have an epigenetic effect leaving the babies genes less able to deal with stress.
Module 46 - Infancy and Childhood: Physical Development
While You Read 46-
1. While in the womb, a fetus’ nerve cells develop at a rate of nearly one-quarter million per minute. The developing brain cortex overproduces neurons, with the number peaking at 28 weeks and then subsiding to a stable 23 billion at birth. During the ages of 3-6 there is rapid development in the frontal lobes. Throughout childhood, a “use-it-or-lose-it” pruning process shuts down unused links and strengthens others creating efficient neural pathways. The brains association areas concerned with higher-order thinking, memory and language are the last areas to fully develop in the brain. 2. Motor development requires specific neural communication, which is not possible until the brain processes have developed to allow it. The sequence is universal and biologically predetermined (barring extreme circumstances). Babies roll over before they sit unsupported, they crawl before they walk (usually at roughly 12 months old). Identical twins begin walking on nearly the same day. 3. In Africa and the Caribbean countries, caregivers massage and exercise babies which can accelerate learning to walk.
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1. Answers will vary but should address infantile amnesia, the concept of constructed memories and source amnesia. 2. Carolyn Rovee-Collier found that when babies realized that their movements led to a mobile over their head moving, they continued to kick to move the mobile. The learning lasted into the
Module 47 - Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
While You Read
1. He showed us that children reason differently from adults— “in wildly illogical ways about problems whose solutions are self-evident to adults.” While he was writing intelligence questions for the Binet intelligence exams, he found that children of the same age often got the same questions wrong. This peaked Piaget`s interest in studying how children develop cognitive abilities. 2. A schema, or mental concept, for a car might have the typical characteristics: four wheels, a car body, windshields, seats, a steering wheel, etc. Any vehicle fitting that description would be assimilated into the schema. But a truck, which has slightly different characteristics (size of body or tires, pickup bed, fewer seats. etc.) would not fit the car schema and the child would have to accommodate, or modify, the schema to fit this new example. (Hint: To remember the difference between assimilation and accommodation, use the double-letters from each word. Assimilation (stays same), Accommodation (creates change). 3.
Stage
Approximate Age Range
Name and Description of Tasks to Be Mastered Key Words Sensorimotor Birth–2 years experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping)
senses motor skills object permanence
object permanence—becoming aware that objects continue to exist even when not perceived (around 8 months of age)
Preoperational About 2 to 6 or 7 years
representing things with words and images(symbolic thinking); using intuitive rather than logical reasoning
egocentrism symbolic thinking pretend play theory of mind Concrete Operational
6 or 7 to 11 years
thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations mastering conservation—the principle that quantities remain the same despite changes in form
conservation mathematical transformations
Formal Operational
About 12 through adulthood
abstract reasoning involving imagined realities and symbols hypothetical thinking deducing consequences
Abstract and hypothetical thinking
4. Baby physics: Babies will look longer at an unexpected and unfamiliar scene that seems to violate the laws of physics.
psychologists believe that cognitive development takes place on a continuum rather than a distinct and separate stages.
9. Answers will vary but should show understanding of the various age ranges and the suggested competencies of each age according to Piaget. Tying these into age-appropriate activities for small children should be included in the answer. Teachers, parents and babysitters should not assume that children understand the world and use the same logic as adults, they should try to build off of what children already know based on how the child currently sees the world. 1. Perhaps it is just a relabeling of children’s disorders as there has been a reduction in the number of cases of cognitive and learning disabilities diagnosed. 2. Characteristics associated with ASD include social deficiencies and repetitive behaviors. Those with autism spectrum disorder often have difficult reading faces and have trouble understanding the emotions of others. Some people with ASD have normal intelligence and exceptional skill or talent in a specific area, but lack social and communication skills and tend to become distracted by minor and unimportant stimuli; others with ASD are unable to use language at all or develop language later than other children. Because the disorder runs on a spectrum, cases can be quite mild to very severe and the social abilities of these individuals can vary widely. 3. Prenatal environments such as maternal infection of inflammation, psychiatric drugs or stress hormones may influence the development of Autism.
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4. Despite a fraudulent study suggesting that childhood vaccines may play a role in the development of autism, this is not true. 5. When an identical twin is diagnosed with ASD, it is 50 to 70 percent more likely that the co- twin will be diagnosed as well. A younger sibling of a child with ASD is also at a heightened risk. A link has also appeared in brain-function studies. 6. There may be under connectivity in the fiber tracts that connect the frontal lobe to the back which integrate visual and emotional synchronicity. Lack of functioning in mirror neurons may also play a role in the development of the disorder.
After You Read Module 47 Review
1. Seven-year-old Amal understands that when a cookie is broken into three smaller portions, it is still only one cookie, not three cookies. Concept described: _conservation___________________ 2. Thirteen-year-old Julie is contemplating the different ways humans express love and wondering if feeling love is innate. Concept described: _abstract thinking___________________ 3. One-month-old Na He puts everything she can find into her mouth, her toes, the string on her clothing, even the stuffed elephant her grandmother gave her. 4. Three-year-old Matthew is talking with his aunt on the telephone and when she asks if he enjoyed preschool today, he excitedly nods his head up and down. Concept described: _egocentrism___________________
Module 48 - Infancy and Childhood: Social Development
While You Read 48-
1. Being afraid of strangers and clinging to the parent/stepparent increases the bond. It also is likely to provide physical an emotional security for the child. 2. They were able to show that attachment was based on comfort contact (the physical closeness between an infant and caretaker), rather than the biological element of feeding. The implications of this finding were helpful in understanding infants’ bond with their caregiver. This research helped psychologists understand that the caregiver provides a secure base from which children can explore to world, but return to when anxious or frightened. 3. He studied how baby ducklings imprint on the first moving creature (or nonliving object) in order to attach. Children, unlike ducklings, do not imprint; however, they do become attached during a sensitive period through mere exposure—being around the caregiver a lot fosters fondness and bonding. 4. Critical periods are times when particular behaviors or stimuli need to be present in order for human growth to proceed. These apply to all species, not just ducklings. Humans, however have a less precisely defined attachment period than goslings, this is known as a sensitive period in which the mere exposure effect suggests we become more fond of those with whom we spend much time.
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1. In her strange situation design, she separated the primary caregiver from the infant and noted the infant’s response. She was able to identify several different types of attachment styles,
which she called secure and insecure. She believed the parenting style impacted the attachment style.
2. Children with a secure attachment style play comfortably in their mother`s presence, happily exploring their environment. When their mother leaves, they become distressed and seek physical contact with her when she returns. Children with an insecure attachment style are less likely to independently explore their surroundings and may act clingy with their mother. When she leaves, they either cry loudly and remain upset or seem indifferent to her coming and going. 3. Ainsworth found that sensitive, responsive mothers who noticed what their babies were doing and responded accordingly and had infants who developed a secure attachment. Insensitive, unresponsive mothers who attended to their babies when they felt like it but ignored them at other times often had insecurely attached infants. 4. Identical twins tend to display similar temperaments and parents report that their children are quite different despite being raised in similar environments. Some babies are difficult (irritable, intense and unpredictable), while others are easy (cheerful and relaxed), these differences may elicit different parenting styles. These temperaments also seem to persist overtime. 5. Across 100 studies worldwide, a father’s love and acceptance have been comparable to a mother’s love in predicting their offspring’s health and well-being. In one large study, those whose fathers were most involved in parenting tended to achieve more in school. 6. Parents should be sensitive and loving in order for the child to form a lifelong attitude of trust (the belief that the world is predictable and reliable) rather than fear and inconsistency
a. The authoritarian parent will insist that the child come home at the same time because “rules are rules” and the curfew will not be extended. b. The permissive parent will allow the child to set the curfew for themselves or not enforce the one that they have set. c. The authoritative parent will discuss the potential change with the child. If there is a good reason for the curfew extension and the parent knows that the child will be safe and responsible, they may extend the normal curfew
2. Children with authoritative parents have higher self-esteem, self-reliance, and social competence. Children with authoritarian parents tend to have less social skill and self-esteem. Children with permissive parents tend to be more aggressive and immature. 3. Children’s traits may influence parenting—warm, loving children may draw out authoritative parenting. Perhaps competent parents and their competent children share a gene for that characteristic. 4. The research that has been done with parenting styles is correlational research and correlation cannot provide causation. The only research method that can demonstrate cause and effect is an experiment. 5. Answers will vary, but may include Modern Western cultures prefer raising children to be independent, although 150 years ago Western cultural values placed greater priority on obedience, respect, and sensitivity to others. Many Asian cultures prefer raising emotionally close children—a strong sense of family self.
After You Read Module 48 Review
1. d. comfort and security. 2. d. attachment forms during a critical period. 3. b. attachment styles may be a result of a mother`s interaction with her child. 4. a. parenting styles seem to be correlated with later social competence. 5. c. intelligence scores were lower and anxiety symptoms were higher.
5. Gilligan believes that females are less likely to view themselves as separate individuals and are more concerned with forming social connections than men. In children’s play, boys typically form large groups, but girls usually play in smaller groups, often with one friend, more imitative of social relationships. Males communicate more often while standing side-to- side and focus more on problem-solving than on making personal connections. The average teen girl sends double the number of text messages of the average teen boy. Women use more family related words in Facebook posts and men use more work-related posts. 6. Women “tend and befriend” while men value freedom and self-reliance more. 7. By age 50, most parenting related gender role differences disappear. Men become less domineering and more empathetic and women become more assertive and self-confident.
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1. Men are seen as being more take-charge, while women are seen as being more aggressive 2. Male physicians on average make $211, 526 per year while female physicians on average make $150,953 per year. 3. Men are more directive, telling people what to do and how to do it. Women are more democratic, welcoming others input in decision-making.
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1. Gender roles vary over time and place: In nomadic societies, there is little division of labor by sex, in agricultural societies, children have typically been socialized into more distinct gender roles. Australia and Scandinavian countries offer the greatest gender equity.
2. In Western cultures, men are expected to initiate dates, pay for meals, and stay at work longer. In other cultures, this is not necessarily so. 3. Social learning theory suggests that people learn appropriate gender role behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of a same gender adult (often a parent). This behavior is then rewarded or punished based on the consistency or inconsistency with traditional gender role behaviors and repeated or discontinued as a result. 4. Gender roles are the set of expectations about a social position and the behaviors accompanying it for that gender. Gender identity is how we ourselves describe our gender—our own sense of being male or female. 5. Androgynous gender behavior involves displaying behavior which is typical of both males and females. Answers will vary but may include a male who enjoys ballet dancing while also enjoying race care driving. People who are more androgynous are more self-accepting more resilient and experience less depression. 6. They may indicate that boys do not wear dresses or girls cannot have short hair. By about age 3, children come to understand that gender schemas help to organize typically male or female behaviors and generally act accordingly. 7. The view themselves in terms of their expressed rather than birth gender, generally indicating that their bodies do not match the gender that they feel. 8. In American survey results 71 % of respondents indicated that they saw “some” or “a lot” of acceptance of gay men and 85% indicated the same for lesbian women, while the acceptance rate for transgender individuals was only 18%.After You Read
