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Urbanization and Urban Issues, Exams of Human Geography

Brunel University London Human Geography

A comprehensive overview of the key aspects of urbanization and the various urban issues that cities around the world are facing. It covers topics such as the drivers of urban growth, the characteristics of urban and suburban areas, the impacts of counter-urbanization, the role of urban development corporations, the concept of world cities, the urban heat island effect, air and water pollution in cities, and the importance of sustainable urban development. The document also includes specific examples and case studies, such as the urban issues faced by london and mumbai. Overall, this document offers a detailed and insightful exploration of the complex challenges and dynamics associated with the rapid urbanization occurring globally.

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2023/2024

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A-level Human geography

Contemporary urban

environments exam Practice

questions and the marking

scheme

1. What is urbanization? - correct answers the growth in the proportion of a

country's population living in urban areas

2. What has global urban population increased by since 1950? - correct

answers 1 billion ➡️ 4.5 billion (2021)

3. How much of urbanization by 2050 will India, China, and Nigeria account for? -

correct answers 37%

4. How should you answer a 6 data analysis question? - correct answers

PEALM

5. What does PEALM stand for? - correct answers Pattern

6. Evidence

7. Anomaly

8. Link

9. Manipulation

10.How was urbanization changed globally since 1945? - Correct answers - All

countries have experienced and predicted to experience increased urban

populations

- Unlike most countries, UK has had 75%+ urban population since 1960

- China and India expected to have greatest urban populations (China's

urban population increased by 890% since 1960)

- Although China is expected to have the greatest number of people in

urban areas, in proportion to the whole population, only 68% of the

population will be in urban areas due to the extremely high population in

China

11.Why are urban areas important economically? - correct answers

Concentration of economic activity

Discover Exams of Human Geography Brunel University London

Partial preview of the text

Download Urbanization and Urban Issues and more Exams Human Geography in PDF only on Docsity!

A-level Human geography

Contemporary urban

environments exam Practice

questions and the marking

scheme

What is urbanization? - correct answers the growth in the proportion of a country's population living in urban areas
What has global urban population increased by since 1950? - correct answers 1 billion ➡️ 4.5 billion (2021)
How much of urbanization by 2050 will India, China, and Nigeria account for? - correct answers 37%
How should you answer a 6 data analysis question? - correct answers PEALM
What does PEALM stand for? - correct answers Pattern
Evidence
Anomaly
Link
Manipulation
How was urbanization changed globally since 1945? - Correct answers - All countries have experienced and predicted to experience increased urban populations
- Unlike most countries, UK has had 75%+ urban population since 1960
- China and India expected to have greatest urban populations (China's urban population increased by 890% since 1960)
- Although China is expected to have the greatest number of people in urban areas, in proportion to the whole population, only 68% of the population will be in urban areas due to the extremely high population in China
Why are urban areas important economically? - correct answers Concentration of economic activity

What are urban areas important politically? - correct answers they’re centers of political activity
What are urban areas the centers of? - Correct answers - Institutions
- Infrastructure
- Services
Why are urban areas important culturally and socially? - Correct answers have high concentrations of cultural and social activity
What is a mega city? - correct answers A city / urban agglomeration with a population over 10 million
What is a Meta city? - correct answers A conurbation with a population over 20 million
What is urban growth? - Correct answers Increase in the number of urban dwellers
What are the three causes of urban growth? - Correct answers - Natural population growth
- Industrialization
- Rural - Urban migration
How does natural population growth cause urban growth? - Correct answers
- Birth rates exceed death rates
  - Young adults most likely to move to cities and have children
How does industrialization cause urban growth? - Correct answers increased economic prospects and are attracted by the idea of more opportunities
What is the pull factor linked to industrialization? - correct answers the idea of a better quality of life, and not the reality of it
How does rural to urban migration cause urban growth? - correct answers Push and pull factors
What is significant about all the causes of urban growth? - correct answers they’re multipliers of one another
What push factors cause rural to urban migration? - Correct answers - Desertification
- Conflict / Civil war
- Natural disasters
- Changes in land use
- Mechanization of agriculture

Better quality social provisions

What is an example of rural-urban migration? - Correct answers China - Hankou system
How does the Hukou system work? - Correct answers - Classifies households as rural or urban and designates a local government to provide rights = Slowed rural to urban migration as there had to forfeit their rights to benefits
Even with this system, why did rural-urban migration occur? - Correct answers - Labor surplus in rural China

Extreme poverty (362m on less than $2 per day)
Change in generation’s perspective on living

What occurred to those who forfeited their rights and moved to cities? - Correct answers - Became known as the "Floating Population" = although China appears to thrive, 250m in urban poverty go unaccounted for
What is suburbanization? - correct answers the increased movement of people, services, and industries from the centers of inner urban areas outwards, towards and onto the edges of the built up areas
What is the definition of periphery? - correct answers Outer edges of cities
What are some cultural references to suburbanization? - correct answers Movies:

Stepford wives = Transformation of American dream into nightmare / Conformity of suburbs forcing people to live under social expectations
Blue velvet = Represented as the perfect and idyllic setting yet lurking beneath is the hidden darkness

What is the history of suburbanization in the UK? - Correct answers in 1800- 1900, there were higher rates of urbanization = People need to live close to work (Built terrace housing) = Cities would get cramped due to unplanned housing = Middle class families moved to suburbs
What is ribbon development? - correct answers the growth of suburban areas along main transport routes = Increased congestion
What are the characteristics of urban areas? - Correct answers - Midrise and high rise housing = High density (Efficient for urban living)

Concentration of all living
Less green space + shared
Mixture of residential, commercial, and industrial
Built on brownfield sites

What are the characteristics of suburban areas? - Correct answers - Low density housing (Vast areas of inefficiently used space)
- Lower amounts of services (Exception being out of town developments)
- More green space and individual ownership
- Predominant land use = Residential
- Built on green field sites
What are the causes of suburbanization? - Correct answers - Car ownership
- Low environmental quality in inner city = First caused by industries + then due to increased car ownership
- Green space is available for developers
- Perception of a high standard of living
- Want the extra space to raise a family
What is the definition of quality of life? - Correct answers Health, happiness, and safety
What is the definition of standard of living? - Correct answers Material possessions and wealth
What are the positive impacts of suburbanization on the suburbs? - Correct answers - Increasing employment opportunities in offices and shops
What are the positive impacts of suburbanization on inner city areas? - Correct answers - Increased industrial and residential clearance for improved transport networks as demand for commuter’s increases
- Environmental improvements of derelict land and potential for more recreational spaces open here
What are the negative impacts of suburbanization on inner city areas? - Correct answers - Decreased employment opportunities and deprivation
- Increased number of derelict buildings = Deter new investment
- Decentralization of employment opportunities
What are the negative impacts of suburbanization on both areas? - Correct answers - Increased in out of city traffic
- Greater polarization between suburbs and inner city
What are the negative impacts of suburbanization on suburban areas? - Correct answers - Increased demand for recreational services
- Pressure increases on green belt
- Increasing demand for retail facilities
- Increasing air pollution
- Increased congestion due to commuters
- Size of city increases as demand for low density housing increases

What type of city could it be described as, and why? - Correct answers A modernist city - Has a grid-like structure = More sustainable as individuals closer to services
Why can't movement to Milton Keynes be called counter urbanization anymore? - correct answers Gained city status in 2022
What is de-industrialization? - correct answers the loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector, which occurred in the second half of the 20th century
What are the reasons for de-industrialization? - Correct answers - Reduced demand for traditional products as new tech is developed
- Competition from abroad
- Mechanization: Producing goods at lower costs with machines
What did the UK economy shift from since 1945? - Correct answers 60% Secondary to 74% Tertiary
What has there been a gradual increase in over the years? - correct answers the quaternary sector
What are the social impacts of de-industrialization? - Correct answers - Increased unemployment
- Loss of confidence and morale in community
- Increase in demand for state benefits
- Higher levels of deprivation
- Closure of linked businesses
- Out migration of more affluent people
- Higher levels of crime, alcohol, drug abuse and family breakdown
- Loss of jobs and personal income
What are the economic impacts of de-industrialization? - Correct answers - Closure of linked businesses
- Loss of jobs and disposable income
- Decline in property prices as out migration occurs
- De-industrialization caused demilitarize effect
- Loss of income in service sector due to less disposable income
- Loss of tax income to local authority and potential decline in services
What are the environmental impacts of de-industrialization? - Correct answers - Derelict land and buildings
- Long term pollution of land from dirty industries
- Deteriorating infrastructure
- Positive impacts have been a reduction of noise

What is the pattern of de-industrialization in UK? - Correct answers - The number of employees in manufacturing has decreased over time but has now stabilized
What is the urban donut effect? - Correct answers Hollowed out CBD and declining inner cities compared to outer prosperity
What is urban resurgence? - correct answers Refers to regeneration, both economic and structural, of an urban area which has suffered a period of decline
What is important about urban resurgence? - Correct answers Based off investor from external forces
What are the reasons for urban resurgence? - Correct answers - Gentrification
- Property led regeneration schemes
- Sustainable communities
What is gentrification not? - Correct answers No politically neutral
What does gentrification mean? - correct answers various things (Positive or negative) to different groups of people
What is the general definition of gentrification? - Correct answers Change in the neighborhood composition = Low income community displaced by more affluent people
Who is gentrification carried out by? - Correct answers Individuals and small businesses rather than by schemes or supported bodies
What does gentrification involve? - correct answers the rehabilitation of old houses and streets
What are businesses replaced with? - Correct answers "Better quality" shops, restaurants, and services
Who came up with the idea of gentrification? - correct answers Ruth Goss
What did she view gentrification as? - correct answers the invasion of the middle class into London
What did Neil Smith believe about gentrification? - correct answers It only occurs when potential ground rent exceeds capitalized ground rent, thus making it financially viable

What are the details and example of the New Deal for Communities? - Correct answers - NDC partnerships were created to carry out 10yr strategic programmers
- Focused on 39 most deprived areas
- Communities were the heart of regeneration
E.g.: Devonport Regeneration Company
What are the successes and failures of the New Deal for Communities? - correct answers Success: Between 2002 to 2008, NDC areas saw increase in 32 of 36 core indicators / Gaps with both local and national authority levels narrowed
Failures: NDC created greater positive change for place rather than people / relatively little net change was achieved for education and wordlessness
What is the definition of mega cities? - correct answers Cities with a population over 10 million people
What are the temporal trends related to mega cities? - Correct answers - 1950's = 2 mega cities (New York and Tokyo)
- 2016 = 31 mega cities
- Expected by 2030 to be 43 mega cities
Where are over 2/3 of mega cities concentrated? - correct answers in developing nations
Which continent accounts for over half the worlds mega cities? - correct answers Asia
What is the trend in the global distribution in mega cities? - Correct answers - Mega cities in HIC's have the lowest growth rate
- Many mega cities tend to be the capital cities of the countries
- Many HIC's don't have mega cities
- Each mega city fluctuates in population and growth
What has the growth in urbanization also led to? - correct answers the emergence of world cities
What are world cities? - correct answers Cities that have a significant political and economic influence on a global scale
How do they differ from mega cities? - Correct answers not defined by size or population but by their importance to world affairs

What do world cities usually drive? - Correct answers Global economies and business
What are world cities hubs for? - correct answers banking and finance
What are world cities also characterized by? - correct answers their rich culture and influence over global social affairs
What are they connected by? - Correct answers Excellent transport links with the rest of the world
What is my example of a world city? - correct answers London
What is urban morphology? - Correct answers spatial structures and organization of an urban area
What is the underlying factor affecting land use in HIC's? - Correct answers Land value
What does the model for land value demonstrate? - Correct answers - Peak Land Value Intersection = Point with the highest land value (Tends to be located in city centers)
- Secondary peaks caused by trend for out of town shopping centers, increased traffic disrupts accessibility, de-industrialization, and sub/counter urbanization
What is the clear down side of this model? - correct answers Model is a general image and not specific to each city
What is distance-decay? - correct answers Value of land decreases as you move further away from the Peak Land Value Intersection
What is the bid-rent theory? - correct answers Taking a transect from CBD to suburbs, land value falls as different land uses are less reliant on accessibility and unable to pay higher prices
What human factors impact land use? - Correct answers - Wealth and development
- Planning
- Patterns of growth
- Economic activities
- Past developments
What physical factors impact land use? - Correct answers - Natural resources
- Water

What is modernism in terms of the built environment? - Correct answers - Began in the late 19th Century
- Believes "Form should follow function" = Cities should be orderly, with every element of life designed and planned for
What ideology opposed this view? - correct answers Post-modernism
What is post-modernism in terms of the built environment? - Correct answers - Rejection of modernist ideas
- Focused on diversity, pluralism, the individual, subjectivity, referencing, nostalgia, and reflexivity
- "Form that rejects functionality" = No coherent ideology
What do post-modernist cities suit? - correct answers the idea of capitalism and thus capitalists
What is a Post-modern Western city? - correct answers an urban form associated with changes in urban structure and architectural design, reflecting the changed social and economic conditions of the late 20th Century in some Western cities
What are the characteristics of Post-modern Western cities? - Correct answers - Fragmentation
- Globalization
- Simulation
- Fortification
- Beautification
- Information
- Gentrification
- Decentralization
- Privatization
What is fragmentation? - Correct answers Cities are becoming more ethnically diverse yet social and cultural inequalities and segregation are more common
What is globalization? - Correct answers Shops, services, and businesses are global brands and companies as opposed to local
What is simulation? - Correct answers Architecture becomes an expression of art in these cities and so buildings often simulate heritage or to her famous buildings/places
What is fortification? - Correct answers Security and surveillance is a key concern in these cities, so fortress landscapes or often common to protect buildings (Benefits capitalists + Targets lower classes)

What is beautification? - correct answers Architecture is more an expression of art than function, it is very varied with decorative ornamentation more common, often linked to the heritage of the city
What are historical and cultural quarters? - correct answers these are areas within a larger urban area that are recognized as having particular cultural or historical importance. Money is placed into the preservation of these areas, thus increasing tourism towards the area
What is information? - Correct answers these cities are dominated by service and knowledge economies / many people are employed in these sectors and many global companies commonly locate here
What is gentrification? - correct answers a common process, leading to a change in the social landscape of cities, also contributing to the increased polarization in terms of wealth and services
What is decentralization? - correct answers Edge cities are commonly associated with PMWC's, especially as the term was first used in North America to refer to cities like LA
- Caused by urban sprawl
What is privatization? - Correct answers Cities are becoming privately owned, including public spaces, streets, squares, or shopping centers
What is economic inequality? - correct answers the difference between levels of living standards, income, etc., across the whole economic distribution
Where does economic inequality exist? - correct answers in all urban areas
What is an example of economic inequality? - Correct answers Mumbai - Contrast of Mantilla (21b building) to Bulla (Inhabited by slum dwellers)
What is economic inequality a form of, and why? - Correct answers a form of social segregation
- Wealth and poor concentrate spatially
What are the reasons for social segregation? - correct answers 1. Housing - Wealthy have greater choice of location than poor
1. Changing environments - E.g.: Former poor areas are becoming gentrified
1. Ethnic dimension - Clusters of migrants in certain poorer areas of inner cities

What is a diaspora? - correct answers A large group of people with a similar heritage who have settled somewhere in the world
Why is there greatest cultural diversity in cities? - Correct answers - Offer greatest range of employment opportunities
- First point of entry to country
- Tend to house earlier immigrant groups within same ethnicity
- Have specialist ethnic infrastructure
- More tolerant of immigrants
What is the benefit of cultural diversity? - correct answers Exposure of people to various foo, music, language, and religion
What are the issues associated with cultural diversity? - Correct answers - Extra pressure on stretched urban services
- Local authorities need to provide English lessons
- Schools may need to alter holiday patterns
- Can cause culturally and spatially distinct communities leading parallel lives
What are the reasons for ethnic segregation in urban areas? - correct answers 1. Self-segregation
1. External factors
How does self-segregation cause spatial division? - Correct answers - Migrants seek support and security of living near friends and relatives
- Provision of specialist infrastructure
- Protection against social abuse and attacks from populations
- Maintenance of culture, language, and traditions
How do external factors cause spatial division? - Correct answers - Source of cheap labor forcing them into areas of cheap housing
- Been discriminated against in areas to local authority housing
- Hostility from majority of population
- Movement of the majority of the wealthy population out of the area
What are the strategies to tackle issues associated with ethnic segregation? - Correct answers - Policy of interculturalism: Emphasizes interaction and exchange of ideas between various cultural groups / Areas of mutual interest are found and community engagement is conducted
- UK has legislations on anti-racism, employment rights, and laws on discrimination, prejudice, and racism
What is a microclimate? - correct answers The weather is different that of surrounding rural areas in terms of temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, visibility, air quality, and wind speed

What are the two levels of the urban dome? - Correct answers - Urban canopy
- Urban boundary layer
What is the urban canopy? - Correct answers Processes act in space between buildings
What is the urban heat island effect? - correct answers a phenomenon where the characteristics of urban areas and the activity within them cause the areas to produce and retain more heat than surrounding areas
Where are the largest urban heat islands? - Correct answers - summer
- Large urban areas
Why is the temperature range from rural to urban areas greatest at night?

- **_Correct answers_** there is a high heat storage capacity of building materials compared to vegetation

What are the reasons for the urban heat island effect? - Correct answers - Surfaces and material have much lower albedo, absorbing more heat energy in the day
- Air pollution from industries and cars creates "pollution dome" allowing in short wave radiation and absorbing outgoing radiation
- Water is disposed quickly = Reduced ET means more energy available to heat atmosphere
- Heat comes from all buildings and vehicles that burn fuel / Air con releases hot air
Why is the Urban Heat Island Effect a Matter of Concern? - Correct answers - Increased temperatures = Increased cases of heat stroke, asthma, organ damage, and death / Vulnerable groups more susceptible
- High air pollution levels (Reactions producing smog and ozone accelerated)
- Increased strain on energy supply for cooling
- Increased water consumption / Strain on water supply and water use restrictions
- Prolonged growing season causes discomfort for people with allergies
- Greater potential for algal blooms
- Increased risk of monument deterioration - Increased chemical weathering
- Climate change expected to increase intensity of urban heat island effect
What are the strategies for managing the urban heat island effect? - Correct answers - Cool surfaces have higher solar reflectance

What is the percentage likelihood of thunderstorms in urban areas? - correct answers 25% greater likelihood
What do thunderstorms develop in? - correct answers hot humid air
When are thunderstorms most common, and why? - Correct answers in the late afternoon - Heat energy had a chance to build up in the atmosphere
How do thunderstorms form? (1-3) - correct answers 1. Heating of air = Uplift of air into troposphere
1. Air cools and condenses as it rises = Cloud formation
1. Form towering cumulonimbus clouds
How do thunderstorms form? (4-6) - correct answers 4. Rapid cooling = Water droplets / Hail / Ice
1. Coalescence of water droplets = Bigger and heavier
1. Raindrops split in uplift of air = + charge released into air
How do thunderstorms form? (7+8) - correct answers 7. Buildup of electrical charge until able to overcome resistance in cloud = Released to areas of - charge on ground or atmosphere = Lightning
1. Thunder = Sudden increase in pressure and temperature from expansion of air
What is the general pattern of fog in urban areas? - correct answers Occurrence of fog increased along with industrialization
How does fog occur? - Correct answers Pollutants act as condensation nuclei and encourage fog formation at night under high pressure weather conditions
What do urban structures and layout effect? - Correct answers Wind speed, direction, and frequency
How do buildings cause change in wind speed and direction? - Correct answers Exert powerful frictional drag on the air moving around them
What are the 3 effects urban areas have on wind? - Correct answers - Speed is lower in urban areas = SA of cities uneven = Exert powerful frictional drag on air
- High rise buildings slow air movement and channel air into urban canyons between them
- On calm nights when UHI effect is greatest, convectional processes draw in strong local winds from cooler areas

How do very close buildings affect wind direction? - Correct answers Forced to skim over the top
How is an urban canyon created? - Correct answers Buildings get taller approaching inner city = Streets become narrower due to building space pressure = Squeezed into restricted area causing Ventura effect
Why is air pollution a cause of concern? - Correct answers as the world continues to urbanize, the fastest growing cause of global deaths is related to air quality
What occurred in London in 1952? - correct answers "The Great Smog" / Caused 4,000 deaths in 4 days
Why did "The Great Smog" occur in London? - Correct answers - High industrialization
- Increased use of cars
- Burning low grade coal for heat
What is a temperature inversion? - Correct answers Increase in temperature with height (Irregular) = Traps pollution in lower layer of the atmosphere
What are the two types of pollution? - Correct answers - Particulate air pollution
- Photochemical pollution
What is particulate air pollution? - Correct answers a form of air pollution caused by the release of particles and noxious gases into the atmosphere
What is photochemical smog? - correct answers A type of air pollution that mainly occurs in cities in which exhaust fumes become trapped by temperature inversions and in the presence of sunlight, ozone forms
What are the pollution reduction policies? - Correct answers - Legislations
- Vehicle control
- Zoning of industry
What is an example of a legislation? - correct answers The Clean Air Act / London 1956
What are the key points of The Clean Air Act? - Correct answers - Creation of smoke free areas
- Councils target areas that exceed the limits

Urbanization and Urban Issues, Exams of Human Geography

Related documents

Partial preview of the text

Download Urbanization and Urban Issues and more Exams Human Geography in PDF only on Docsity!

A-level Human geography

Contemporary urban

environments exam Practice

questions and the marking

scheme