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UNDERSTANDINUNDERSTANDIN
General definition of SELF: Who a person is, including the qualities such as personality and ability that make one person different from another. Lesson 1: Philosophy Philo means love, sophos means wisdom or love of wisdom. It is the study of acquiring knowledge through rational thinking and inquiries that involves in answering questions regarding the nature and existence of man and the world we live in. Also called as the mother of all disciplines simply because all fields of study began as philosophical discourses. Self Philosophical definition: The essence of a man’s being. (the being, which is the source of a person’s consciousness). PHILOSOPHERS: SOCRATES For Socrates, reality is dualistic, made up of two realms.
- One realm is changeable , transient , and imperfect , (The physical world in which we live comprising all that is subject to the 5 senses.)
- The other realm is unchanging , eternal, immortal. (It is only the ideal forms themselves that are perfect, unchanging, and eternal.) His way of teaching called Socratic Method - asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking. Our bodies belong to the physical realm : They change, they’re imperfect, they die. Our souls belong to the ideal realm : They are unchanging and immortal, surviving the death of the body. PLATO He was called the Father of academy. According to him, soul is divide to three, The Allegory of the Chariot:
- Appetitive soul - the part of the person that is driven by desire and need to satisfy oneself (physical needs, pleasures and desires, objects, and situations).
- Spirited soul- courageous part of a person. One who wants to do something or to right the wrongs that they observe.
- Rational soul- the drive of our lives. The part that thinks and plan for the future (the conscious mind). It decides what to do , when to do it and the possible results one could have depending on their actions. PLOTINUS Plotinus based his views on Plato’s core concepts, spearheading an intellectual movement that came to be known as Neoplatonism. ST. AUGUSTINE Believed that the physical body was both radically different from and inferior to its inhabitant, the immortal soul. He describes the body as a “snare” and a “cage” for the soul. He considers the body a “slave” to the soul. He ultimately came to view the body as the “spouse” of the soul. ST. AQUINAS Aquinas views persons as material substances whose souls emerge from the unified relationship of form (morphe) and matter (hyle). (Taken from Aristotle’s theory) Hyle is the common stuff that makes up everything in the universe. Morphe refers to the essence or substance of a thing. Aquinas believes that life begins with the inseparable union of form and matter , gradually giving rise to the conscious self as we know it. He believes that every living thing has a soul since the soul is the principle of life , that is what distinguishes a living (animate) thing from a nonliving (inanimate) thing. DESCARTES He is the Father of modern philosophy. He believed in modern dualism or the existence of body and mind. Being in constant doubt regarding one's existence is proof that a person exists. LOCKE For Locke, all knowledge originates in our direct sense experience. (Empiricist View) The conscious awareness and memory of previous experiences are the keys to understanding the self.
He stated that a person is born with knowing nothing and that is susceptible to stimulation and accumulation of learning from the experiences, failures, references, and observations of the person. HUME “ There is no self !” The self is simply a collection of experiences within a particular person. The self is nothing else but a bundle of impressions. Categorized experiences into two:
- Impressions - basic objects of our experience or sensation (ice cube is cold, cold sensation is an impression) 2. Ideas - copies of impressions (imagining being in love for the first time) KANT He established that the collection of impressions and different contents is what it only takes to define a person. He believes that the awareness of different emotions that we have , impressions and behavior is only a part of ourselves. FREUD Man has 3 aspects of personality :
- Id - the child aspect of a person; attention is on satisfaction of one's needs and self gratification. Driven by pleasure principle. EROS – the sex (life) instinct (which contains the libido or sexual desire) THANATOS - the aggressive (death) instinct
- Super ego - the conscience of one's personality. “ Do what is morally right and socially acceptable actions”.
- Ego - police or the mediator between id and super ego. Operates within the boundaries of reality, primary function is to maintain the impulses of the id to an acceptable degree. The Levels of Consciousness:
- Conscious - where minority of our memories are being stored and the memories that are in the conscious is easier to be to be tapped or accessed.
- Pre-conscious - the middle part of the entirety of our consciousness; the memories stored in this area can still be accessed but with a little difficulty.
- Unconscious - this area is where majority of our memories since childhood are deeply stored. It is very difficult to tap the memories.
RYLE
The Self Is How You Behave (Behaviorism) “ ghost in the machine ” dualism (Ryle’s central metaphor) in which the “self” is thought to be a spiritual, immaterial ghost rattling around inside the physical body. What truly mattered is the behavior a person manifests in his day to day life. CHURCHLAND The Self Is the Brain (Neurological Framework). Physicalism is the philosophical view that all aspects of the universe are composed of matter and energy and can be fully explained by physical laws. MERLEAU-PONTY “I live in my body.” By the “lived body” Merleau- Ponty means that the mind and body are so intertwined, they cannot be separated. Lesson 2: SOCIOLOGY Study of human social relationships and institutions. Understanding how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures. Self Sociological definition: a relatively stable set of perceptions of who we are in relation to ourselves , others, and to social systems. The self is socially constructed in the sense that it is shaped through interaction with other people. How does sociological perspective views the development of the self? A person’s sense of self is developed through his interactions with society. The environment plays a huge role in the making of the self. SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM A sociological theory of knowledge according to which human development is socially situated and knowledge is constructed through interaction with others. Theory of Self-Estrangement or Self-Alienation: When a person feels alienated from others and society as a whole. A person may feel alienated by his work by not feeling like he has meaning to his work , therefore losing their sense of self at the workplace MEAD Social Learning Theory: Theory that attempts to explain socialization and its effect on the development of the self
how to behave given expectations and influences from others. Lesson 4: PSYCHOLOGY the scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behavior in a given context. Self Psychological definition: A set of behaviors , feelings, thoughts, and motives that identifies an individual Personality is the essence of who we are and is the embodiment of one’s physical, psychological, cognitive, affective and spiritual self. Therefore, when we speak of the self, we will describe it in personality terms. PSEUDO-PSYCHOLOGY 'pseudo' means 'false' or 'pretend.' refers to a psychological practice that is false or unfounded. On theories: Theories generally see self and identity as mental constructs, created and recreated in memory. SELF is the “ sense of personal identity and of who we are as individuals (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014).” Identity is concept of an individual about himself and often referred to as “self-identity” or the self belief of what the individuals thinks and feels about himself. Roles are also part of his identity. (E.g. birth order in the family , nature of work, occupation ortitle, academic and social standing) Self-identity is the belief of what the individuals thinks and feels about him. And can also be influenced by how others perceive an individual Self-development is a continuous process throughout the lifespan ; one’s sense of self may change, at least somewhat, throughout one’s life. Self-representation has important implications for socio-emotional functioning throughout the lifespan. Attitudinal Change James meant that with just the simple change of attitude anyone even you can change your life for better or for worse. Self-schema According to Rogers, is our organized system or collection of knowledge about who we are. As you grow and adapt to the changes around you , self-schema also changes. Self Concept is how someone thinks about or perceives themselves. The Self-concept includes two different experiences of the self:
- The Existential self - the concept that you are unique/different from others.
- The Categorical self - concept (and the concept of others) that tends to focus on his or her own visible characteristics. Self-Concept/Self-Schema Composed of 3 Things:
- Self-Image ( Real Self ) – who you are at the moment.
- Ideal Self – who you like to be.
- Ought Self ( Self-Esteem/Self-worth) – who you think you should be. Self-actualization refers to the need for personal growth and development throughout one's life. Self-Esteem and Self-Worth refers to the extent to which we like, accept, or approve of ourselves ; or how much we value ourselves. Social Comparison Theory Proposed by Leon Festinger. Social comparison theory states that individuals determine their own socia l and personal worth based on how they stack up against others they perceive as somehow faring better or worse. Self-evaluation - people tend to choose a comparison target that is similar to themselves. Self-enhancement - to improve their self-esteem. Downward Social Comparison - We create a positive self-concept by comparing ourselves with those who are worse off than us. By having the advantage, we can raise our self-esteem. Upward Social Comparison - comparing ourselves with those who are better off than us. Self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) - The theory posits that two people in a relationship each aim to keep themselves feeling good psychologically through a comparison process to the other person. It assumes two things: that a person will try to maintain or increase their own self-evaluation , and self evaluation is influenced by relationships with others. Unconditional Positive Regard UPR refers to accepting and supporting another exactly as they are , without evaluating or judging them. Carver and Scheier Self-awareness i s the conscious knowledge of one's own character, feelings, motives, and desires. 2 types of self that we can be aware of:
- The Private self – your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings
- The Public self – public image commonly geared toward having a good presentation of yourself to others. Freud’s view of human nature: Human beings are biological organisms motivated by the satisfaction of bodily needs and with motivating forces that drive behavior. True Self Vs False Self The true self is the core of you who are , the original you, unshaped by upbringing or society. Your false self can also be called your adapted self. Evolution of the term “self” from the philosophical perspective to the psychological perspective: In the philosophical perspective, the term used to describe the self was “soul ”. The philosophical perspective mainly saw the self as a being apart from the physical body. In the sociological and the anthropological perspectives, the terms used were “I” and “me ”, or the French equivalents “moi” and “personne”. Sociologists and anthropologists in general, argued that the self develops and is formed through interacting with others and through the dictates of culture. Thus, there is the concept of the private self, and the social self. In the psychological perspective, the terms “I ” and “me” are still used, but so is “personality”. Psychologists posit that personality is the essence of who we are and is the embodiment of one’s physical, psychological, cognitive, affective and spiritual self. Lesson 5: Eastern & Werstern Eastern Thought – Collectivist Culture, Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Hierarchy. Giving more value to social responsibility and accepting the reality of life (fact) and interested in maintaining the balance of life Western Thought – Individualist , Equality, Competitive, Self development. Give higher value with their personal rights. Trying to find and prove the "truth". SELF CONFUCIANISM Subdued self - conditioned to respond to perceptions , not of its own needs and aspirations, but of social requirements and obligations. I Me MEAD The “I” is the reaction of the individual to the attitude of others, as well as the manifestation of the individuality of the person. The “I” is one’s social interactions. The “Me” are the characteristics, behavior, and or the actions done by the person that follows the “generalized others” that person interacts with. The “Me” are the attitudes and behaviors of the person with reference to their social environment. JAMES The "I" is the response to the "Me." The "I" is the response of an individual to the attitudes of others. The "Me" is the social self. The "me" is the organized set of attitudes of others which an individual assumes. ROGERS The “I” as the one who acts and decides. The I Self reflects what people see or perceive themselves doing in the physical world (e.g., recognizing that one is walking, eating, writing) The “me” is what you think or feel about yourself as an object. The Me Self is a more subjective and psychological phenomenon, referring to individuals’ reflections about themselves (e.g. characterizing oneself as athletic, smart, cooperative)
scrotum. May causes sterility and a risk factor for cancer of testes. Congenital Defect of Reproductive System KLINFELTER SYNDROME - a sex chromosome disorder in male that results from the presence of an extra X chromosome (XXY). TURNER SYNDROME - a condition that affects only females, results when one of the X chromosomes is missing (XO). PHIMOSIS - narrowing of the foreskin of the male reproductive structure and misplaced urethral openings. PUBERTY - the period of life, generally between the age of 10 and 15 years old , when the reproductive organs grow to their adult size and become functional under the influence of rising level of gonadal hormones (testosterone in male and estrogen in female). MENARCHE - first menstrual period of female. What is an estrogen? is a vital hormone in female development. Hormones are chemical messengers that tell specific tissues to behave in a certain way. SEXUAL MOTIVATIONS Humans are one of the most complex living organisms, our sexual motivations are correspondingly complex. Like hunger, sex is motivated by both biological and psychological factors. Secondary sexual characteristics are important since they give rise to sexual motivations. Erogenous Zones Refer to parts of the body that are primarily receptive and increase sexual arousal when touched in a sexual manner. PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE SEXUAL RESPONSE FOLLOWS A PATTERN OF SEQUENTIAL STAGES OR PHASES WHEN SEXUAL ACTIVITY CONTINUED. Sexual Response Cycle
- Excitement Phase – increase in pulse and blood pressure ; a sudden rise in blood supply to the surface of the body resulting in increased skin temperature, more rapid breathing, and a general increase in muscle tension.
- Plateau Phase – the stage of sexual excitement prior to orgasm, generally of brief duration. If stimulation is continued, orgasm usually occurs.
- Sexual Climax – orgasm is the conclusion of the plateau phase, marked by a feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure ; characterized by involuntary vocalizations.
- Resolution Phase – the r eturn to a normal physiologic state ; the last stage of sexual response. Occurs after orgasm and allows the muscles to relax, blood pressure to drop , and the body to slow down from its accumulated excitement since the first phase. Sexual orientation refers to a person’s physical, romantic, and/or emotional attraction towards other people. It is comprised of three elements: sexual attraction, sexual behaviour, and sexual identity. Gender identity is understood to refer to each person’s deeply felt internal and individual experience of gender, which may or may not correspond with the sex assigned at birth , including the personal sense of the body. This means that an individual’s gender identity is no t necessarily confined to an identity that is completely male or completely female. Gender expression refers to the way in which an individual outwardly presents their gender. These expressions of gender are typically through the way one chooses to dress , speak, or generally conduct themselves socially. Sexual health is a state of physical, emotional, mental and social wellbeing in relation to sexuality. HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IS DEFINED AS ANY ACTIVITY–SOLITARY, BETWEEN TWO PERSONS , OR IN A GROUP – THAT INDUCES SEXUAL AROUSAL. Types of Behaviors: 1. SOLITARY BEHAVIOR - INVOLVING ONLY ONE INDIVIDUAL 2. SOCIOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR HETEROSEXUAL BEHAVIOR - MALE WITH FEMALE HOMOSEXUAL BEHAVIOR - MALE WITH MALE OR FEMALE WITH FEMALE SELF-GRATIFICATION MEANS SELF- STIMULATION THAT LEADS TO SEXUAL AROUSAL AND GENERALLY, SEXUAL CLIMAX. THE CHALLENGE IS TO DEVELOP SELFCONTROL IN ORDER TO BALANCE SUPPRESSION AND FREE EXPRESSION. PETTING - MAY BE DONE AS AN EXPRESSION OF AFFECTION AND A SOURCE OF PLEASURE , PRELIMINARY TO COITUS. COITUS - THE INSERTION OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE INTO THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN.
PREMARITAL COITUS
MARITAL COITUS
EXTRAMARITAL COITUS
POST MARITAL COITUS
Sexuality is a central aspect of being human throughout life [that] encompasses sex, gender identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction. Sexuality is influenced by the intersection of biological, psychological, social, economic, political, cultural, legal, historical, religious, and spiritual factors. STD stands for sexually transmitted disease , whereas STI means sexually transmitted infection. Not all diseases begin with infections, but many do. Sexually transmitted disease first begin as sexually transmitted infections. Lesson 8: Material Self The material self is a total of all of the tangible things you own : your possessions your home your body MATERIAL SELF TWO SUBCLASSES: Bodily self Extracorporeal self - It includes all of the people, places, and things that we regard as “ours.” Material Self Investment
- BODY - The innermost part of our material self is our BODY. Intentionally, we are INVESTING in our body.
- CLOTHES - Herman Lotze’s ‘Philosophy of Dress’ James believed that: Clothing is an essential part of the material self. Lotze book: ‘Microsmus ’any time we bring an object into the surface of our body, we invest that object into the consciousness of our personal existence taking in its contours to be our own and making it part of the self .’
- IMMEDIATE FAMILY - Our parents and siblings hold another great important part of our self. What they do or become affects us .We place HUGE INVESTMENT in our immediate family when we see them as the nearest REPLICA of our self.
- Home - Our experiences inside the home were recorded and marked on particular parts and things in our home. The home thus is an extension of self , because in it, we can directly connect our self. Belk (1988) stated that “we regard our possessions as parts of ourselves. We are what we have and what we possess. ” The main argument of William James and Russel Beck with regards the self: Material self - we are what we have , we see our possessions and families as part of ourselves. Lesson 9: Spiritual Self Spiritual self is one of the four constituents of the "self" according to William James in his book, The Principles of Psychology in 1890. The spiritual self is the most intimate, inner subjective part of self. It is the most intimate version of the self because of the satisfaction experienced when thinking of one's ability to argue and discriminate, of one's moral sensibility and conscience, and of our unconquerable will ( James 1890) is purer than all other sentiments of satisfaction (Green 1997). What Is the Difference between the Soul and the Spirit? Our soul is who we are, our personality , and is composed of our mind, our emotion, and our will. God created us with these faculties so we can express Him. Our spirit , the deepest part of our being, is related to the spiritual realm : it enables us to contact and receive God Himself. The soul and the spirit are so close to one another that the two require the word of God to divide them, to separate them from each other. Our soul and our spirit are not the same thing. In fact, it is evidently not only important for us to see that they are distinct components, but also to discern one from the other. Religion - set of cultural beliefs and practices that usually includes some or all of basic characteristics. Ritual - is the performance of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or sacred law. Logotherapy Logotherapy is a psychotherapy introduced by Dr. Viktor Frankl, the Father of Logotherapy. Main belief of this is that “man’s primary motivational force is search for meaning.” Which aids individuals to find personal meaning of life, whatever life situation they may be. Basic Concepts of Franklin Psychology Life has meaning under all circumstances. Main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life. Freedom to find meaning. Frankl’s Sources of Meaning
- Purposeful Work - To find the meaning of life starts with holding a future goal.
- Courage in the Face of Difficulty. A meaningful life is a life with suffering.
moment and look for ways to cope with other necessities.
2. Modifying your approach. It begins with the recognition that your strategy is not appropriate with the task and/or that you do not comprehend the learning experience successfully. For example, you are not able to understand what you are reading, you should learn to modify your strategy in comprehending your material. You might wat to read and reread a page in five-minute intervals instead of trying to finish the material in one sitting. 3. Skimming. This is basically browsing over a material and keeping an eye on keywords, phrases, or sentences. It is also about knowing where to search for such key terms. 4. Rehearsing. This is not just about repeatedly talking, writing, and/ or doing what you have learned, but also trying to make a **personal interpretation or summary of the learning experience.
- Self-test.** This is trying to test your comprehension of your learning experience or the skills you have acquired during learning. For example, you can make an essay questions or definition of terms test while you are reading or watching a material. Guidelines or techniques that you can use in studying.
- Make an outline of the things you want to learn, the things you are reading or doing, and/ or the things you remember.
- Break down the task in smaller and more manageable details.
- Integrate variation in your schedule and learning experience. Change reading material every hour and do not put similar topics together. Also include physical activities in your planning.
- Try to incubate your ideas. First, write your draft without doing much editing. Let the ideas flow. Then leave your draft at least overnight or around 24 hours— some even don’t look at it for a week— and do something else. After a given period, go back to your draft and you might find a fresh perspective about it. Sometimes, during incubation, you suddenly have ideas coming to you.
- Revise , summarize and take down notes , then reread them to help you minimize cramming in the last minute, especially when you have a weakness in memorizing facts and data.
- Engage what you have learned. Do something about it. On a reading material for example, highlight keywords and phrases, write your opinions about the matter on a separate notebook, or create a diagram or concept map. Some people also learn best by copying the key paragraphs word for word. You may want to look for other definitions and compare or contrast materials. Lesson 12: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION (PPT) MENTAL HEALTH According to WHO, “HEALTH IS A STATE OF COMPLETE PHYSICAL, MENTAL AND SOCIAL WELLBEING AND NOT MERELY THE ABSENCE OF DISEASE OR INFIRMITY.” It affects how we THINK, FEEL and ACT. It is important at every stage of life. Concepts of mental health: Subjective well-being Perceived self-efficacy Autonomy Competence Intergenerational dependence Recognition of the ability to realize one’s intellectual and emotional potential Factors contributing to mental health problems: Biological factors, such as genes or brain chemistry Life experiences, such as trauma or abuse Family history of mental health problems HOW EMOTIONS AFFECT HEALTH The way you feel about yourself Your ability to manage your feelings and deal with difficulties. The quality of your relationships Good Mental Health – Helps you make good decisions and deal with life’s challenges at home, work or school. It is NOT UNCOMMON for teenagers to develop problems with their mental health. Problems range from MILD - SEVERE Can include depression, anxiety, body esteem issues, and suicide. WHAT IS EMOTION? In Psychology Emotion is often defined as a complex state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that influence thought and behaviour. ORIGINS OF EMOTION; EMOTIONAL PATHWAYS Fast operates mainly at unconscious level screens incoming stimuli and helps respond quickly to stimuli before they reach consciousness.
built-in, innate sensitivity to cer-tain cues – explains why we have fears of spiders, heights and light-ning than cars or electricity Slow operates mainly at conscious level linked to explicit memory it delivers more complex information to our consciousness relies heavily on the cerebral cortex, which is why we can feel fear, despite knowing there is no real basis Origins of Emotions; The Limbic System Both pathways rely heavily on the limbic system. The amygdala plays an especially important role in both emotion pathways. It was thought that the amygdala was simply involved in negative emotions but recently it has been discovered that it plays a role in positive emotions as well. In the cerebral cortex, the right hemisphere specializes in negative emotions and the left hemisphere processes more positive emotions. The idea that each hemisphere specializes in different classes of emotion has been called lateralization of emotion. THE VALUE OF EMOTION prepare us for action shape our behavior (emotions are reinforcing) regulate social interaction facilitate communication nonverbally facilitate adult-child relations and thus development make life worth living by adding value to experience allow us to respond flexibly to our environment (approaching good, avoiding bad) have a central place in moral education and moral life through conscience, empathy, and moral emotions such as shame, guilt, and remorse WHY DO WE HAVE EMOTIONS? Emotions are the result of genetics and learning, especially early in life. Serve as arousal states that help cope with important recurring situa-tions. Learned emotional responses and genetics are important components of psychological disorders, including depression, panic attacks and phobias. 4 COMPONENTS OF EMOTIONS
1. PHYSIOLOGICAL FEELINGS Strong emotions trigger bodily changes - Increased heart rate, Rise in blood pressure, slowing of digestion Physiological messages can offer clues to your emotions once you are aware of them 2. NON-VERBAL REACTIONS Not all physical changes accompany emotions Easy to tell when experiencing strong emotion, but hard to determine what exact emotion is being conveyed Facial expressions 3. VERBAL EXPRESSIONS We cannot always rely on perceptive-ness to make sure the message is conveyed appropriately 4. COGNITIVE INTERPRETATIONS Our minds play an important role in determining how we feel What we think determines our feeling. We cannot always rely on perceptive-ness to make sure the message is conveyed appropriately THREE WAYS TO MEASURE EMOTION
- BODY/PHYSICAL blood pressure heart rate adrenaline levels muscle activity neural images posture tears, perspiration lie detector readings 2. THOUGHTS (Observed indirectly through) spoken and written words on rating scales answers to open-ended questions on surveys and during interviews responses to projective instruments, sentence stems, etc. self-assessments or perceptions regarding the behavior and intentions of others other cognitive operations such as rational/logical thinking
- BEHAVIOR facial expressions activity level alertness screaming laughing Smiling Aggression approach/avoidance attention/distraction Insomnia Anhedonia
understand substantially the same ‘facial language’ the world around.” Universal emotion expression - supports the point to the biological heritage humans EKMAN’S SEVEN BASIC EMOTIONS Paul Ekman, a leading psychologist in emotions, suggests humans everywhere can recognize seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise. EKMAN’S DISPLAY RULES According to Ekman, the seven emotions are universal, but the display rules vary greatly, depending on the culture. He defines display rules as the permissible ways of displaying emotions in a given society. THEORIES READING EMOTIONS In addition to being universal, the ability to read facial expressions is nearly ageless. Psychologists think that children as young as 5 years old have the same ability to recognize emotion on a person’s face as an adult does. MORE EMOTIONS While we can recognize Ekman’s seven emotions, most of us can think of others like greed, envy, regret, optimism, etc. Robert Plutchik suggests that rather than seven, we have eight primary emotions and eight secondary emotions. He depicts this in his “Emotion Wheel.” PLUTCHIK’S EMOTIONAL WHEEL More complex emotions occur when pairs of adjacent emotions combine. (Ex: love is a combination of joy and acceptance.)
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF EMOTION
JAMES-LANGE THEORY
An emotion provoking stimulus a physical response, that then leads to emotion. BEHAVIOR EMOTION “We feel sorry because we cry; angry because we strike; afraid because we tremble.” -William James CANNON-BARD THEORY An emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time. EMOTION + BEHAVIOR Two-Factor Theory This theory suggests that the emotions we feel depend on two things:
- our internal physical state
- the external situation we find ourselves in. Attractive female researcher study Dutton and Aron (1974) had an attractive woman ask for interviews of young men both on a swaying rope bridge, 200 ft above a river, and also on terra firma. A part way through the interview, she gives them her phone number. Over 60% from the rope bridge called her back, versus 30% from terra firma. They had interpreted their arousal from fear on the bridge as attraction to the woman. Cognitive Appraisal Theory The thought that we look back on a situation and consciously decide how we should feel about the situation. (Ex. Grades, Papers, Projects, Tests) Opponent-Process Theory Theory that we trigger one emotion by suppressing its opposite emotion. (Ex. Drugs - Eventually people take drugs not for the highs, but to avoid the lows.) EXPERIENCING EMOTION – Facial feedback hypothesis. The idea that the muscular movements involved in certain facial expressions trigger the corresponding emotions
Sylvan Tomkins - claimed that the facial expression itself – movement of the facial muscles producing the expression – triggers both the physiological arousal and the conscious feeling associated with the emotion Izard - Believes that learning to self-regulate emotional expression can help in controlling emotions. This approach to the regulation of emotion might be a useful adjunct to psychotherapy Documented the effects of facial expressions on physiological indicators of emotion using 16 participants Distinctive physiological response pattern emerged for the emotions of fear, sadness, anger, and disgust, whether the participants relived one of their emotional experiences or simply made the corresponding facial expression Both anger and fear accelerate heart rate, but fear produces colder fingers than does anger EXPERIENCING EMOTION - Gender differences in experiencing emotion David Buss Reported that women are far more likely to feel anger when their partner is sexually aggressive Men experience greater anger than women when their partner withholds sex Research by evolutionary psychologists also suggests clear and consistent differences between the sexes concerning feelings of jealousy Men, more than women, experience jealousy over evidence or suspicions of sexual infidelity A woman is more likely than a man to be jealous of her partner’s emotional attachment and commitment to another and over the attention, time, and resources diverted from the relationship EXPRESSION OF EMOTION – Protypical Behavior EXPRESSION OF EMOTION – Universality of Facial Expressions Charles Darwin Facial expression of emotion was an aid to survival because it enabled people to communicate their internal states and react to emergencies before they developed language Maintained that most emotions, and the facial expressions that convey them, are genetically inherited and characteristic of the entire human species Facial expressions were similar across cultures Scherer and Wallbott Found very extensive overlap in the patterns of emotional experiences reported across cultures in 37 different counties on 5 continents Important cultural differences in the ways emotions are elicited and regulated and in how they are shared socially EXPRESSION OF EMOTION - Cultural rules for displaying emotion Display rule Cultural rules that dictate how emotions should be expressed and when and where their expression is appropriate. Often, a society’s display rules require people to give evidence of certain emotions that they may not actually feel or to disguise their true feelings Cole Found that 3-year-old girls, when given an unattractive gift, smiled nevertheless They had already learned a display rule and signaled an emotion they very likely did not feel Davis Found that among first to third graders, girls were better able to hide disappointment than boys were Not only can emotions be displayed but not felt, they can also be felt but not displayed. Most of us learn display rules very early and abide by them most of the time. EFFECTS OF EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION Physiological Effects Emotional suppression increases risk of physical problems such as, cancer, asthma, heart disease (DeAngelis, 1992). Emotional inhibition also causes a increased risk for psychological problems,
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY
Each individual has needs, or feelings of deficiency that drive their behavior Once a need is satisficed, then it is no longer motivating Needs are in a hierarchy that an individual moves up as they satisfy levels of needs Maslow said that there is a natural hierarchy or rank to the needs humans have. Before one of the higher needs can be fulfilled, the needs on the levels below must be met, at least to some degree. Most needs are met at a rate of about 85% before a person can move onto a higher need THEORIES OF MOTIVATION; MASLOW’S HIERARCHY/ HUMANISTIC Maslow argued that humans behave to satisfy specific types of needs. He broke them into five categories:
- Biological: Hunger, thirst, warmth
- Safety: Avoid danger
- Attachment: Wanting to belong to something
- Esteem: Seeing oneself as competent and effective
- Self-actualization: Being all that you can possibly be CRITICISM OF MASLOW Although critics will admit Maslow’s Hierarchy was the first real step toward a comprehensive theory of motivation, they say it isn’t complete. People often neglect their basic biological needs for more social needs Cross-cultural needs: individualistic vs. collectivist cultures see needs differently Sensation seeking: Why would someone jump out of a plane for “fun? ALDERFER’S ERG Consolidates Maslow into 3 categories Existence physiological and security Relatedness affiliation Growth esteem and self-actualization
ALDERFER’S FRUSTRATION REGRESSION
Differs from Maslow When unable to satisfy upper level needs, the individual will revert to satisfying lower level needs Interesting point from research growth stimulates growth MCCLELLAND’S LEARNED NEEDS Needs are acquired through interaction with environment Not a hierarchy, but degrees of each type of need or motive MCCLELLAND’S TYPES OF NEEDS N Ach - motive to meet some standard of excellence or to compete N Aff - motive to develop and maintain close and meaningful relationships N Pow - desire to influence and control others and the environment HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY Some variable prevent (job) dissatisfaction and some variables produce motivation Hygiene factors-basic needs that will prevent dissatisfaction light, temperature, pay, parking Motivators when present cause high levels of motivation interesting work, advancement, growth, etc. HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY PROCESS THEORIES Reinforcement Theory Expectancy Equity Justice Theory Goal Setting
TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT
Positive Reinforcement - rewards Punishment -Application of a negative outcome Negative Reinforcement - removal of negative outcomes when behavior is performed Extinction - absence of reinforcement (removal of positive reinforcement) Drawbacks REINFORCEMENT PROCESS TYPES OF REWARDS Extrinsic - external rewards such as money, fringe benefits, job security Intrinsic - internal satisfaction outcomes from doing work Satisfaction - employee’s attitude about work situations EQUITY THEORY Individuals try to find a balance between their inputs and outputs relative to a referent other However, a referent other is not always present RESULTS OF INEQUITY Equity - I am being treated fairly Under-rewarded - will look to increase rewards, or decrease inputs to match rewards Over-rewarded - will change referent to match cognitions or increase inputs Leaving and distortion REINFORCEMENT THEORY Behaviors are functions of consequences that they produce If a behavior is followed by a pleasant experience it will be repeated In order to change behaviors the consequences must be changed
OVER-REWARD VERSUS UNDER-REWARD
INEQUITY
GOAL SETTING THEORY
Assignment of specific, moderately difficult, and providing feedback will provide motivation to work (Employee) participation Receive rewards Provide competencies for achievement EFFECT OF GOAL DIFFICULTY ON PERFORMANCE EXPECTANCY THEORY Combines goal setting and reinforcement theories Three questions drive motivation: With effort can I perform? With performance, will I be rewarded? Do I value the rewards? Terms
- Expectancy - belief that effort will lead to performance
- Instrumentality - performance leads to rewards (does performance level matter)
- Valence - value of rewards
Learning is a mental activity and may or may not result in overt behavioral changes. People exert some control over their learning and actively participate in learning. Latent learning - type of learining which manifest later when suitable motivations, circumtances or reinforcements appear. (A dog is taught to sit but does not do so until offered a treat as a reward.) Rote learning – remembering information without giving it a deeper meaning, which makes it imposibble to learn. (memorization) Discovery Learning – costructivist approach: implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves. Classical Conditioning - Involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus that already brings about a particular response (reflex) with a new (conditioned) stimulus, so that the new stimulus brings about the same response. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) The object or event that originally produces the reflexive/natural response Unconditioned Response (UCR) The reflexive/natural response to the unconditioned stimulus Neutral Response (NR) A new stimulus that does not produce a response Conditioned Stimulus (CS) What becomes of the NS once it has become associated with the UCS Conditioned Response (CR) The response to the Conditioned Stimulus Ivan Pavlov Rings Bell Pavlov demonstrated conditioned responses by strapping a dog into a harness. When meat powder was placed on the dog’s tongue, the dog salivated. Pavlov repeated the process several times, with one difference. He preceded the meat powder by half a second or so with the sounding of a bell on each occasion. After several pairings of meat powder and bell, Pavlov sounded the bell but did not follow the bell with the meat powder. Still the dog salivated. It had learned to salivate in response to the bell. Principle of Classical Conditioning Acquisition - the process by which an oganism learns the association involved in classic conditioning. Stimulus Generalization – process in which a stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimula produces similar behavior identical to the conditioned response Stimulus Discrimination – process in which an organism learns the difference between different stimuli in order to restrict their response to one stimulus. Extinction – refers to the gradual weakening of conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing. Spontaneous Recovery – the recurrence of an extinguished conditiones respone. Phobia – fear that persists even when no realistic danger exist. Conditioned Emotional Response (CER) – learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus. Desensitization - exposing phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed. Vicarious Classical Conditioning - learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing anothers emotionbal reactions. Classical Conditioning in Humans “Bobo doll experiment” (Albert Bandura) Steps to succesful modeling Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation Self-managed behavior – the ability to monitor and adjust one’s behavior Premack principle – any high frequency response can be used to reinforce a lo frequency response (ex. no gameboy until you finish your homework) Self Managed Behavioral Principles Choose one behavior to focus Monitor and evaluate Set a specific goals Choose reinforcements Record your progress Reward success Adjust your plan as learn more about your behavior How to break bad habits Try to get the same reinforcement with a new response Try to discover what is reinforcing and unwanted response and remove, avoid, delay the reinforcement. Try to avoid or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit. Behaviorial Contractiong – an agreement in the form of written, signed contract; indicated the behavior to be chaned, expected behavior and rewards/punishments.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner Operant Conditioning - methodof learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. It is learning based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses with their consequences. Skinner box - an apparatus for studying instrumental conditioning in animals. Timing of Reinforcement Response chain – reactions that follow one another in sequence. Superstitious behavior - occurs when reinforcement accidentaly follows a behavior that did not produce the reinforement Shaping - gradually molding or training to perform a specific response. Operant extinction – refers to the gradual decrease in the response rate of a behavior learned via reinforcement. More operant conditioning terms Positive reinforcement – strengthens a behavior by proving a consequence an indiviual finds rewarding. Negative reinforcement – removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior Punishment – aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows Types of Reinforcers
- Positive Reinforcers - when presented, increases the occurrence of behavior.
- Negative Reinforcers - Remove aversive stimulus to increases the occurrence of a behavior.
- Primary Reinforcers - unlearned reinforcers
- Secondary Reinforcers - associated with a primary reinforcer Programmed instruction – a method of learning consisting of frames and responses. It uses instructional materials where one works at one’s own rate, makes active responses to a step by step program and gets immediate knowledge of results. The self instructional materials can be presented by mechanical devices, called teaching machine which come in various form. Purpose – to manage human learning under controlled condition; to provide quicker response Reinforcement Conceprts Schedules of reinforecements - to plan what responses will be reinforced, we need to understand how and when are these applied. Continuous reinfocement – type of schedule of reinforcement that regularly affects behaviour, every correct response is reinforced every single time. Partial reinforcement – it is only reinforced at certain intervals or ratio of time, instead of reinforcing the behavior every single time. Effect of partial reinforcement Behaviors acquire from this form of schedule have been found to be more resilient to extinction. Stimulus control – term used to describe situations in which a behavior is triggered by the presence or absence of some stimulus. Operant stimulus generalization – to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. Discriminative stimuli – if one learns to discriminate between controlling stimuli to respond appropriately. Punishment Punisher Keys Severe punishment Mild punishment Punishment Concepts Aversive stimulus Escape learning Avoidance learning Lesson 13: SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS Self-Efficacy Theory is commonly defined as the belief in one’s capabilities to achieve a goal or an outcome. It is the ability to influence events that
