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HARRY K. CHARLES, JR., TIMOTHY G. BOLAND, and G. DONALD WAGNER
VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATED CIRCUITRY
Very large scale integrated circuitry is playing a key role in the development of modern electronic sys-
tems at APL. In the Microelectronics Group, activities have been focused on creating a resource to en-
sure that all personnel have access to high-performance, high-reliability integrated circuits. This article
describes progress in the design, acquisition, packaging, testing, and insertion of very large scale integrated
circuits.
INTRODUCTION
The fabrication of integrated circuits has progressed to the point where a million transistors can be placed on a single piece of silicon about one-quarter the size of a U.S. dime. Such a "chip" or integrated circuit is shown in Fig. 1. Chips possessing that level of complexity are generally classified as very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI chips are being produced by major semiconduc- tor manufacturers primarily for the computer, automo- bile, and home entertainment markets. Typical chips in production include 32-bit microprocessors and large, 256-kilobit (and even I-megabit) random access memories. With most manufacturers of semiconductor devices directing their products toward the mass markets, the military, which by integrated circuit industry standards uses very few chips, found itself without sources of VLSI circuitry to meet its stringent future performance needs. The military requires fast chips (up to 10 14 gate-hertz per square centimeter I) that are extremely reliable and can survive the rigors of a broad spectrum of applica- tions environments. To create and acquire suitable high- performance VLSI-like integrated circuits, the Depart- ment of Defense established 2 in 1978 its own VLSI program, called the Very High Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) Program. Both commercial VLSI manufactur- ers and the VHSIC program are now producing indi- vidual devices, circuits, and families of multiple chips suitable for use in future military systems. It is quite clear that high-performance systems must contain the latest, fastest, and most flexible VLSII VHSIC chips available. APL, in its role as a prime de- veloper of advanced prototype electronic systems for use in space, under water, in avionics, and for Fleet defense, needs access to these VLSI/VHSIC devices. Consequent- ly, several years ago, APL created a VLSI task team. 3 Based on the team's findings and the growing impact of VLSI worldwide, VLSI was made both an important part of Independent Research and Development efforts and a focused development activity in the Microelectron- ics Group. It is the mission of the VLSI effort to ensure access to high-performance, high-reliability integrated circuits.
Johns Hopkins A PL Technical Digest, Volume 7, Number 3 (1986)
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Progress has been made in several areas, including de- sign, acquisition (fabrication), packaging, testing, and system insertion. The interrelation of these activities in the development sequence for an application-specific in- tegrated circuit (ASIC) is shown in Fig. 2. The colored lines represent optional hand-off points between in-house development and outside vendor development or ser-
271
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Figure 2-Flow diagram for the development of an ASIC.
vices. The chip development and insertion process in- volves not only the expenditure of significant resources, but also the need to make several decisions concerning internal versus external activities, especially in the area of acquisition. ASICs are available in several different forms, includ- ing full-custom, standard cell, gate-array, and linear ar- ray circuits. The principal difference among the forms is the degree of customization of the layout of transis- tors that implement the desired circuit. The transistor layouts and interconnections for full-custom and stan- dard cell circuits are unique. Gate arrays (digital) and linear arrays (analog) have regular arrays of prediffused transistors whose interconnection can be customized to implement different circuits simply by patterning one or two metallization levels. The patterning is performed in a manner analogous to patterning a printed wire board on a hybrid substrate 4 and thus represents a natural ex- tension of APL's photolithographic technology.
DESIGN
APL's custom or application-specific design and de- velopment capabilities (from gate arrays to full-custom circuits) are based on the Mentor computer-aided en- gineering workstation, a powerful single-user system that provides a generic set of tools for all design tasks. The
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Figure 3-Flow diagram of a typical ASIC design.
Mentor software has been augmented with different li- brary file sets specific to various vendor's ASIC structures. Figure 3 shows a flow diagram of a typical applica- tion-specific chip design process. The process begins (step 1 in Fig. 3) with the entry of a logic schematic (circuit design at the logic-gate level) into the Mentor system us- ing its graphical input and editing tools. The schematic may begin as a high-level functional block diagram that is successively refined until the design is drawn entirely with precharacterized logic macros or cells that include the common functions used by logic designers. The func- tional cell library contains symbols·, behavioral models, and the performance characteristics for each cell. The library data are combined with the cell-incidence and connectivity data from the schematic to create a func- tional design database that serves as the input to the simulation and layout operations. In the next step (2), behavior and performance data for all cells in the design are combined to simulate the function and timing for the entire design. Using the Men- tor interactive logic simulator, test inputs are applied to the circuit model, and outputs are calculated and dis- played for analysis by the designer. Internal circuit nodes can be easily "probed" during simulation by· simply pointing to them in the schematic. Timing waveforms are calculated using typical values for cell propagation de- lays and estimates for interconnection path delays. (Ac- curate values for interconnection delays are calculated during the back-annotation step described below.) On the basis of simulation results, changes to the design may be required as indicated by the dashed line in Fig. 3. De- sign and simulation is an iterative .process that continues
Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 7, Number 3 (/986)
As our experience with the gate array develops, other arrays (both digital and analog) will be added to the list of those available in-house. A high-priority new array will be one that has significant radiation hardness~ An- other array will extend the processing capability to double-level metal (where two levels of metal are used on the array for interconnection), thus allowing uses of larger and higher performance arrays to meet future needs. Design and engineering support for the acquisi- tion of custom chips and arrays (which do not fall into the range of the current internally available gate arrays) will be readily available from the Microelectronics Group.
PACKAGING
Packaging-the science and art of providing electri- cal interconnections, thermal management, mechanical support, and environmental protection for integrated cir- cuits-it is an extremely important activity in the VLSII VHSIC arena. High-performance integrated circuit chips must have well-designed packaging to ensure that their performance integrity will be maintained when they are inserted into the system. Poor packaging can significantly slow a high-speed chip or can prevent it from function- ing. The VLSIIVHSIC era puts special demands on packaging, including low-inductance and -capacitance in- terconnections for high-speed operation, packaging ma- terials having matched temperature coefficients of expan- sion and high thermal conductivity to handle the in- creased chip power densities that result from device scal- ing,9 and configurations that can support input! output requirements ranging to 300 leads and beyond. Such de- mands cannot be satisfied by today's dominant pack- aging technology: the dual in-line package. Dual in-line packages are basically limited to 64 leads (on 100-mil
Package type Pin^ pitch^ (mils)
centers down two long sides of a rectangular package structure) because of their poor input!output count-to- area ratio. Sixty-four-lead dual in-line packages are typi- cally several inches long and 1 inch wide and weigh ap- proximately 12 ounces in the ceramic form. Fortunately for VLSIIVHSIC, there is at least one high-density pack- aging option, the ceramic chip carrier, that promises to satisfy the stringent demands of the new technologies. Figure 4 compares various package input! output capa- bilities with major device and system input! output re- quirements. Chip carriers offer high-density input!output performance while providing reduced size and weight and improved electrical parameters over the dual in-line package. They are designed for surface mounting, which involves mounting the leadless (or, in some cases, lead- ed) components directly to the top surface of a circuit board. In contrast, the dual in-line package leads must be soldered into predrilled and plated holes; this tech- nique is known as through-hole mounting. As shown in Fig. 4, the pin grid array is a high-density packaging al- ternative for through-hole mounting. In through-hole mounting packages that have bottom leads such as pin grid arrays, the leads are soldered into plated through holes (vias) in multiple-layer printed wire boards. The holes are typically placed on 100-rnil centers (lOO-mil grid). In addition to holding the component lead, they serve as a via for interconnection between cir- cuit board layers. This type of mounting has several dis- advantages for VLSI and VHSIC applications, including reduced board density (due to via structure), difficulty to repair (as input!output numbers increase), and in- creased inductance due to round wire leads. The repair or removal of this type of package can be facilitated by the use of a socket that is permanently mounted into the board. The package can then be plugged into and
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Applications Single-device family --~ Memory (^) -- --.- ( multich ip) Microprocessor - -.- (mul t ich ip) Light emitting diode driver (^) ----.- Gate array/ custom (^) ---.... VHSIC (^) --. I I I (^) I I I I I J I I I I I I Figure 4-Package and application input/output capability and requirements.
274 Johns Hopkins^ APL^ Technical^ Digest,^ Volume^ 7,^ Number^ 3 (1986)
out of the socket. However, sockets add additional in- ductance and resistance to the circuit path that can de- grade device performance. Mechanical integrity would also be questionable for high-reliability applications. The Group has geared its VLSI/VHSIC packaging technology toward surface mounting with ceramic chip carriers on multilayer ceramic boards to effect the best possible temperature coefficient of expansion match. A description of the Microelectronics Laboratory's mul- tilevel thick-film ceramic board technology is given in an article by Romenesko et ale elsewhere in this issue. To verify that the ceramic chip carrier provides a viable high-performance package for APL's custom chip first- level packaging requirements, comprehensive electrical, thermal, and mechanical modeling activities have been undertaken. The models, based on finite-element model- ing techniques, have been validated by controlled ex- perimentation and have already been used to develop design guidelines for dense circuit applications such as , the digital signal processor in the Naval Remote Ocean Sensing System program. A detailed description of the methodology for thermal and thermomechanical model- ing is given in an article by Clatterbaugh and Charles elsewhere in this issue. The article also presents various validation experiments that show that the ceramic chip carrier/ceramic board system can be reliable under ex- treme environmental conditions such as temperature cy- cling (- 55 to + 125°C) and power cycling. 10 Finite-element modeling has been used to numerical- ly estimate the capacitance, inductance, and characteristic impedance of sigrlal lines in multiconductor environ- ments typical of high-speed digital signal-processing ap- plications that are representative of VHSIC brassboard systems. If a bipolar logic family were selected, for ex- ample, a design concern might be the characteristically low impedance (8 to 20 ohms) of a standard thick-film multilayer circuit. Low-impedance lines that connect bipolar logic forms can cause significant propagation de- lays for logicall-to-O transitions and, to a lesser extent, for logical O-to-l transitions with an undetermined amount of loss in noise margin. The problem worsens with increasing line length. Finite-element modeling techniques can be used to de- velop design guidelines for increasing the characteristic impedance and hence for improving the performance of this bipolar logic family, especially at high frequencies. Design guidelines are focused on reducing the overall ca- pacitance of critical signal lines, on providing adequate power supply decoupling of switching transients, and on ensuring low-impedance ground returns. A typical im- pedance-versus-buried-Iayer position curve is shown in Fig. 5.
TESTING
We are developing a flexible test system and proce- dures for the automated testing of fast, complex integrat- ed circuits. The automated test equipment system is built around Hewlett Packard 16- and 32-bit computers driv- ing a suite of bus-programmable test equipment. A typi- cal equipment configuration for conducting several important parametric and functional tests is shown in
Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 7, Number 3 (/986)
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Fig. 6. The equipment can handle both packaged chips, using a socketed fixture, and unpackaged chips/wafers, using a compatible probe card or precision micromanipu- lator probes. One especially powerful feature of this modular type of system is its flexibility. The equipment shown can easily be reconfigured or replaced with higher performance equipment to satisfy unique or new test re- quirements. The test system is programmed to apply a sequence of stimuli (test vectors) to the device under test, to sample the outputs, and to compare them to the de- sign specifications. The test vectors can be extracted from the Mentor computer-aided engineering workstation after software simulation of the design, or they can be pro- grammed directly at the test computer console. In the VLSIIVHSIC world, device testing (and pack- aging) should be an integral part of the design process. Consequently, we have emphasized a design-for-test- ability philosophy, and we encourage all designers to in- clude some form of on-chip testing and self-diagnosis capabilities. Many testing operations have already been performed on VLSI/VHSIC devices, including the APL-developed APL-IA and spectrum accumulator chips, II VHSIC Static Random Access Memories (SRAMs), APL-devel- oped gate arrays, and some commercial silicon and gal- lium arsenide parts. The system in Fig. 6 was used for most of these tests although, in a few cases, a special- purpose dedicated tester was required to provide some unique function or capability. For example, two stand-
TECHNOLOGY INSERTION
We have been active in the introduction of custom chip technology into several programs, including towed array chain electronics, space tracking and switching ap- plications, and VHSIC interoperability. The towed array project involves the design of a 3500-gate CMOS array for use in the second-generation underwater data acquisition module. The gate array replaces 10 medium- and large-scale integrated circuits used in the initial design, reduces the size and power con- sumption of the circuit, and permits the addition of new functional capabilities. All aspects of the development of this gate array except the integrated-circuit process- ing were completed in-house using the facilities and methodology described in this article. A particularly interesting interoperability project is the VHSIC Programmable Interface Adapter (VPIA). The goal of the VPIA design team is to design and simulate a preliminary interface of the Texas Instruments VHSIC bus (Mbus) to the Honeywell VHSIC bus (Lbus). To simplify the design effort, it was decided to implement an Mbus slave to the Lbus master interface. The Mbus side or slave side of the VPIA looks like a peripheral to the Mbus central processing unit. The Lbus side (the master side) looks like a central processing unit in that it can take control of the bus and generate control and address signals. This allows direct memory access read or write transfers on the Lbus side to a central process- ing unit or a direct memory access device on the Mbus via the VPIA. A block diagram of the currently con- figured VPIA is shown in Fig. 8.
REFERENCES and NOTE
I Chip functional throughput rate is defined as the product of the equ iv a- lent gates per chip ti mes the ma xi mum clock rate of a gate, f ma x' where f (^) m ax is equal to V4 Td, where Td is the gate delay. 2See, for example, J. L. P ri nce, "VLSI Device Fundamentals, " Chap. 2 in Ve ry Large Scale Integration ( VLSI) : Fundamentals and Applications, D. F. Ba rbe, ed ., Springer-Verlag, New York , p. 6 (1980). 3G. D. Wagner, VLSI Committee Report, JHU / APL EME-82- 338 (1982). 4H. K. Charles, Jr. , and G. D. Wagner, " Microelectronics at APL : The First Quarter Centur y," Johns Hopk ins APL Tech. Dig. 6, 130 (1985). 5c. F. Fey and D. Pa rashevopoulas, " Selection of Cost Effect iv e LSI De- sign Methodologies, " in Proc. IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Con/., Portland , Ore., p. 148 (1984). 6E. J. Kuttila, R. C. Anderson , and P. Matlock, " Design Productivity Stud y," in Proc. IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Con! , Portland, Ore ., p. 153 (1985). 7 J. W. Balch, W. Magnuson, and M. D. Pocha, " Developing a Gate Ar- ray Capability of a Research and Development Laboratory, " in Proc. 1983 University /Go vernment/ Industry Microelectronic Sy mp. , Texas A&M Uni ve rs it y, p. 151 (1983). 8For a ty pi cal comparison, see " Gate Array and Standard Cell IC Vendor Director y," Electron. Trend Pub. (1984).
Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 7, Number 3 (1986)
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Figure 8-Block diagram of the VHSIC Programmable Inter- face Adapter.
9M. H. Woods, "Update on Implications of Scaling on VLSI Reliability," in IEEE Int. Reliability Physics Symp. Tutorial, Orlando, Fla. , p. 32 (1985). lOW. Englemaier, " Effects of Power Cycling on Leadless Ceramic Chip Car- rier Mounting Reliability and Technology," Electronics Packaging and Production (1983). II See, for example, IR&D/ B&P Program Plan, Vol. II, FY 1985, The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (1985).
THE AUTHORS
HARRY K. CHARLES, Jr. (right), received the B.S.E.E. degree from Drexel University and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineer- ing from The Johns Hopkins University in 1972. After completing a post-doctoral research appointment in the Milton S. Eisenhower Research Center at APL, he joined the Microelectronics Group, which he now supervises. His current research and development in- terests include the study of contacts and interfacial phenomena in hybrids and surface-mounted microelectronic assemblies. He has published over 60 papers in these and other fields. Dr. Charles is a senior member of the IEEE, and a member of the American Phys- ical Society and the International Society for Hybrid Microelec- tronics.
TIMOTHY G. BOLAND (center) was born in Bethesda, Md., in 1950. He received a B.S.E.E. degree from the University of Mary- land in 1972 and an M.S.E.E. from Stanford University in 1973. During 1972-74, Mr. Boland worked at the Bell Telephone Labo- ratories designing software and hardware to test electronic switch- ing systems. In 1974 he joined APL's Computing Branch, where he developed software and special-purpose hardware for applica- tions in data processing, computer graphics, and image processing. As supervisor of the VLSI Design and Development Section in the Microelectronics Group since 1985, he has been working to develop in-house capabilities for the design, fabrication, and test of semi- custom integrated circuits.
G. DONALD WAGNER's (left) biography can be found on p.270.
Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Volume 7, Number 3 (1986)
