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CHAPTER I
1.1 Back Ground: As pointed out in Nepal Government sixth year plan (1980-1985) the high man-land ratio with two-thirds of the population being sustained on only one-third of the cultivated land has brought significant pressure on the natural habitat of Nepal. The exploitation of marginal lands for agricultural purposes, particularly on steep slopes, has led to the destruction of forest, which has in turn led to severe erosion and decreased production. Increased demand for fuelwood and fodder has also led to deforestation, which has adversely affected downstream areas. About 90% of Nepal's labor force is engaged in agriculture. From the estimated population growth rate of 2.6% per year and future projections by the world Bank of agricultural production aggregate increases of only 1.5%, it is clear that productivity levels will be insufficient. The average hill family currently produces only 64% of its annual consumption requirements. Survival is thus becoming more and more dependent on remittances from family members working in other occupations or away from home. A nation-wide inventory in 1974 showed that over 18000 sq km of Nepal was suffering from the effects of soil erosion, but that much of the damage could be remedied with improved land use. To respond to that challenge, the government has given priority to soil and water conservation and agriculture, allocating 33% of its budget to activities in those areas. The sixth plan set an ambitious target of 71,427 hectares to be afforested during the five year period. Given the Government's low resource level together with the heavy burden to realize these targets, assistance from international agencies was requested (BTRT Project Proposal,1984). In 1984, CARE NEPAL, the nepal mission of an international non governmental organisation, began investigating the possibility of becoming involved in watershed development activities. The begnas tal/ rupa tal area was indentified as a watershed which required soil and water conservation measures and further investigations were carried out. Based on discussions with central, zonal, and district officials within the Forest Ministry and the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management (DSCWM), it was decided that CARE-Nepal could provide DSCWM with technical, financial and logistical assistance to address the needs of the Begnas Tal/Rupa Tal Watershed.
A proposal for a five year project (FY85-FY89) to be jointly implemented by CARE and DSCWN was prepared in 1984, outlining project objectives, strategies and activities. An agreement detailing responsibilities of both agencies and terms of their cooperation was signed in Janaury 1985, and the project was titled Begnas Tal /Rupa Tal integrated Watershed Project. It is also called the soil and watershed conservation component of the district panchayat secretariat. Based on this arrangement, the first phase commenced with the arrival of the CARE staff in July
- The following activities were conducted during the first 18 month:
- a socio-economic study of the residents of the project area, A forest inventory of the entire project area, Land use maps for the entire project area, Establishment of forest tree nurseries in each of the Panchayats, Implementation of various pilot activities in all four panchayats. The arrival of the DSWMn staff in January 1986, brought addition manpower and expertise to the project, and also brought to light the immediate need for a comprehensive management plan to clearly outline the project's objectives, strategies and methods of integration. Initial confusion over the boundaries of the project areas was resolved in March, 1986 when DSCWN and CARE agreed to adhere to the political boundaries of the implied in the project proposal. This decision was made so that local political structures could be effective in project planning and implementation. Both agencies have agreed to concentrate their activities within the Begans Tal and Rupa Tal Watersheds. Up until this agreement, 60% of project funds were allovated to activities within the watershed boundries, and 40% were spent on areas within the four panchayats which lie partially outside the watersheds. This 60:40 breakdown of activities is expected to be maintained for the project life.
1.3.1 Community Involvement Recognized as a critical component of any development effort, the participation of the communities in the area is stressed in this project. Therefore the communities will be actively involved in all stages of planning, decision-making, implementation and evaluation of the project. Area residents will be expected to contribute to this project in terms of time, labour, land, and through loans in order to encourage a self help attitude and to strengthen the community base. 1.3.2 Integration The complexity of the ecological, and agricultural systems found in the project area demands an approach that is equally comprehensive. Therefore the project must be integrated in the following senses: Multidisciplinary approach- it is well recognized that ecological deterioration is caused by a number of inter related factors such as population growth, deforestation, agricultural methods, grazing, geological processes, etc. in order to reestablish the ecological balance, therefore, a multidisciplinary approach is required. But unlike many of Nepal's large integrated watershed development projects, this DSCWM/ CARE project will not attempt to include a plethora of components involving several line agencies. Rather it will focus only on soil and water conservation and the improvement of agricultural productivity, and will be implemented by just one line agency, DSCWM. Coordination between DSCWM and CARE/ Nepal- DSCWM and CARE/ Nepal will jointly implement the project. CARE will jointly implement the project. CARE will augment DSCWM's mid-level technicians with experienced field personnel to compose a staff able to carry out coordinated activities in the office and field. Coordination with other line agencies and development organizations. Contacts with other agencies active in the project area will be maintained in order to avoid duplicity of activities and utilize existing facilities and structures whenever available.
1.3.3 Replicability: The project, by maintaining low levels of financial input and foreign expertise and maximum support form the community, hopes to provide an approach that can be replicated else where in Nepal by Nepal Government or specifically, DSCWM. 1.3.4 Focus on small farmers Given the fact that the overwhelming majority of households within the project area have less than one hectare of cultivable land and a per capita income of less than $67 a year, the focus of this project is on small farmers. 1.3.5 Special attention to Women's participation Presently women in the area spend the greater part of an average day doing routine tasks such as collecting water, fuelwood and fodder, taking livestock to graze, and performing household chores. Recognizing the major role women play in agricultural activities, the project will give particular emphasis to involving them in extension activities and to measures which would reduce the time required for routine tasks. 1.3.6 Appropriate technologies and local resources In all activities, technological innovations will be appropriate to the conditions, and local resources will be utilized as much as possible.
The hills north of the Pokhara Valley are composed of grey phyllitic schist which is a weekly bedded metamorphic rock. The south facing rock dip, varying between 15-30 encourages the downward movement of soil and rock, which is further accelerated because of the lack of forests on those slopes. 2.4 Climate Rainfall distribution and temperatures for the project area are similar to those in Pokhara which are given in Table below with slightly lower prescription levels due to the presence of ridge west of the project area. Hails commonly occurs during pre-monsoon storms. Typically the winter months of October- through March are extremely dry, while the months June to September bring 75% of the yearly precipitation. The average length of the monsoon is 102 days. Mean temperatures peak in July- August at 25.5 deg C and fall to a low of 13.2 deg C in January. Frost rarely occurs in the project area. Isolation is highest in May. Typically the south facing slopes have high evapo transpiration rates year round while northern slopes remain relatively shaded and moist. Wind is not a significant variable of the weather pattern. Prevailing winds are westerly during the winter and easterly during the monsoon. 2.5 Hydrology Data on erosion rates, precipitation, infiltration, evapo-transpiration and lake sedimentation have not yet been collected. These aspects are discussed in general terms below. Soil moisture levels vary greatly with the seasons. Even north-facing slopes are dry in the winter, when streams and ravines are devoid of moisture. Due to the low saturation properties of the soil, however such streams are overflowing during the monsoon and succeeding months. Although both lakes are receiving high levels of sediment, Rupa Tal is more affected because of its shallowness and narrowness. As much as .75 ha of new land has reportedly formed on the
banks of Rupa Tal. The main cause of lake sedimentation is surface erosion of grazing lands, bari lands, degraded forests, gulleys and landslides. The project area as a whole could be classified as being in fair condition according to Nelson's description of watershed conditions in Nepal:''Significant disturbance in the soil mantle and or stream channel exist. Productivity of land is diminished.'' (Nelson, et al, 1980) Within the project area, the prime areas of concern are: Gulley erosion and slides- 12 sites of total area 5 ha. Degraded stream channels -3 sites of total 6.3 km Severe surface erosion- grazing land, 330 ha scrub, 1000 ha burned forest floor, 850 ha 2.6 Vegetation The natural vegetation of the area, as well as crop cultivation, is largely determined by the most important climatic factor, the monsoon. Forest vegetation is predominantly sub-tropical wet forest and tropical Shorea robasta (Sal) forests, but also includes subtropical riverain forests in the ravines and lower temperature forests along the ridges. The climax species of Castanopsis- Schima compose the sub-tropical wet forest. Other species in this association are Engelharodtia, Syzigium, Myrica and Rhus. Exploitation has been limited in the riverian forests, so excellent stands of Bombax Malaburicum, Cedrela, Lagerstroemia, Anthocephalus and Albizzia are found. The lower temperature forests species include Rhododendron, Eurya, Prunus, Quercus and Betula, though these are usually found to be in a degraded condition. Imperata species and Artmisia Vulgaris are the grass types found on the shallow soils of pasture lands.
Grazing lands, which occupy only 6% of the project area, are often located at the top of south facing slopes, and are in generally poor condition from overuse. Existing gullies and landslides are usually found in these degraded pasture lands. Lakes and marshlands, located entirely in begnas panchayat, comprise only 4% of the land area. 2.9 population The geography and pattern of land use suggests the distribution of the population. Because of the steep and cooler features of the north slopes, most villages are located on south- facing slopes. According to the 1981 census, there were 17,756 residents living in the four panchayats. The population estimate for 1985 was 19940 giving an annual increase of almost 3% per annum, .3% higher than the national average. The following table illustrates the demographic changes in the five year period. According to Nelson, a figure of 4.2 persons per hectare of cultivated land is classified as a mediu, level of population density. 2.9.1 Caste and ethnicity The project area is composed of many caste and ethnic groups, representing theree religions. Because these groups are found to cluster within villages, their presence and characterstics are important to recognize for project planning and implementation. 2.9.2 Migration Due to a combination of economic, social and ecological factors, a part of the population searches for work outside the area for either seasonal or longterm opportunities. An estimated 7% of the area's youth are employed in the army or police service, or in trade /industry in Delhi and Bombay. Two thirds of the migrating labour force works outside Nepal, and 80% of these workers are away from their homes for over a year. Most of the Nepal, Indian and British army employees from the area are Gurung, Brahmins and Chhetris. Poorer farmers from the lower castes tend to seek seasonal paid labour as skilled workers.
2.9.3 Land Holding Pattern According to the baseline socio-economic survey, all but 2% of the areas residents own some land with avereage holding equal to just less than one hectare per household. 2.10 Farm system The land use pattern in the area is determined almost exclusively by the practice of subsistence farming. The basic unit is the individual farm, which is generally composed of four elements. The farm household The cultivated land The livestock The common lands to which it has access, including forests and pastures 2.10.1 household The farm household consists of all members who contribute labor, knowledge and decisions to the production process, and of those who are dependent on them. Labor inputs are required to till and plant land, harvest and store crops, herd, feed and tend livestock, collect water, fuelwood, timber and fodder from the environment , and feed and care for family members. These are all subject to considerable seasonal fluctuations. 2.10.2 Cultivation The cultivated land is generally scattered over numerous plots which include khet bari lands.these lands differ in their locations, soil fertility levels, seasonal uses and cropping intensities. The main crops produced are paddy, millet, maize, ghaiya, wheat, potato, pulses and oilseed. Khet lands, both irrigated and rainfed, are concentrated in the lowlands around the lakes and rivers. Although the production of paddy, the status crop, is dependent on these lowlands, generally only one crop is grown per year. Farmyard manure is rarely applied, due to the distance from the home (often upland) and the better response to the limited available fertilizer in bari
collected from springs or taps. The largest proportion of the fuel to cook food, fodder for the livestock in the form of leaves and twigs lopped from trees, and timber for the construction and repair of dwellings all come from the nearest availabel forest. In most cases, the distances to be covered are considerable, and absorb a good portion of the households' labour supply. 2.11 Cottage Industry Although farming and livestock holding are the main economic activities in the area, there is some cottage industry done on a small scale, primarily for local consumption. Besides manufacturing of bamboo baskets and mats, there is some production of alcoholic beverages. Approximately 15% of the area's residents belong to the occupational castes, and are active in leather working, iron working, and tailoring. 2.12 Education The literacy rate of 46% in the area is higher than the national average of 29%. Males in the area have a 65% rate of literacy, while females have a much lower rate of 28%. of the children aged 6-15, 73% attend one of the 24 schools in the area (18 primary, 4 middle, and 3 high schools). The levels of education are highest for the Brahmins.
CHAPTER III
The Problem A midst the setting described above life in the area has continued in much the same way for hundreds of years. New residents havve cleared patches of land on which to cultivate crops, and build houses to continue and expand the practice of subsistence agriculture in the region. But now an increased population has placed increasing demands on an ecological system already geologically unstable, resulting in an unbalanced system of utilization and conservation. The causes and effects of this problem are discussed below. 3.1 The effects of increasing population pressure. The increase in population at an average rate of almost 2.9% per year in the project area expresses itself in an increase in household size and/ or an increase in the number of house- holds. To meet the additional demand for food, farmers must maximize their production of basic cereal grains instead of diverting land or labour into other gainful pursuits. When subsistence needs cannot be met by farming activities, seasonal and temporary migration to the Terai and India increases. As the number of inhabitants rises, there follow changes in the patterns of use of cultivated lands, forests and livestock, as described below. 3.1.1 Cultivated land Growing pressure on land resources has led to the extension of cultivation into new lands which for reasons of topography and soil quality are unsuitable for such uses. The resulting loss of grass, shrub and tree cover leads to higher rates of surface erosion, the effects of which are a lowering of soil productivity. Changes in the hydrological cycle are brought on by invreased runoff, reduction in the water retaining capacity of the soil and increased siltation in lakes and rivers. Since the amount of khet land available in the area is limited, increasing population pressure necessitates the cultivation of an increasing proportion of bari lands on which the preferred staple food, paddy is not grown. The khet lands are now yielding only three- fourths of the amount of
highest demands from the forest, and timber consumption accounts for only about 3.5% of forest uses, or about 0.3 m cube /capita / year. There currently exists a fuel wood deficit in the area. Roughly 14% of the demand cannot be met by the annual production yields, resulting in the removal of approx 18 hectares of open forest biomass a year. At this rate, all forests would be reduced to scrub in 110 years time. But given the expanding population, the annual deficient will increase each year, reducing the life of the forest to 55 years after 5 years. By 1995, the remaining forest will provide for the yearly fuel needs of less than two thirds of households with no timber provision. At that time, some residents without access to forest land will be forced to purchase fuel supplies or reduce their consumption. During winter months, the forest becomes the main source of fodder for most households. Fodder production has been estimated at 3.3mcube ha/ year, but the amount of fodder required has not been calculated. As fuelwood and fodder becomes increasingly scarece, the time required for collection invreases proportionately. The majority of residents report having to spend significantly longer amounts of time now than required five years ago. The common practice of setting fire to forest areas is responsible for considerable loss of biomass and damage to the forest floor. The immediate gains of increased grass, herb and shrub fodder production, and release of soil nutrients are sought after for the obvious advantages to the cropping and livestock components of the farm system. Negative impacts of this action are the loss of mature woody material, damage to seedlings, and loss of organic matter to the forest, all of which contribute to high erosion potential. 3.2 The effects of geological processes All actions that produce a physical wearing down of the earth's surface are known as erosion processes, but these cinsists of both natural and accelerated types of erosion. Although maninduced erosion palys a significant roele in the loss of topsoil from the project area, it must be recognised that natural erosion may be responsible for the greatest amount of destruction to productive lands and lake sedimentation. This is so because of the continual tectonic uplifting of
the mountain ranges and downcutting of river systems, resulting in the mass movement of rock and soil from slopes. Recent research has indicated that such ''mass, wasting'' is the dominant geological process in the formation of slopws in Nepal's Himalayas, and that it is the inevitable result of gradually increasing levels of slopw instability over time. Although it has been stated that population pressures have been responsible for an increased proportion of soil loss over the last hundred years, mass wasting processes are not directly attributable to man's actions, and therefore are not affected by measures to improve land use management (Carson, 1985). 3.3 Summary statement of the problem: The maximum number of people whose food needs can be satisfied by production from lands under traditional crops at land use intensities which do not destroy the resource base determines the carrying capacity of the area. More desirable, however, is a population level below this subsistence density which has available to it adequate supplies of essential items so that growth and development are not limited by shortages of any basic requirements. The prevailing climatic and geological conditions in the project area are characterized by unstable, highly erodible soils on ,moderately steep slopes, and monsoon rains of great intensity alternating with long periods of negligible rainfall. Within this erosion-prone setting, the population has increased to a level that has surpassed the optimal densisty and may in the near future surpass even the subsistence density. An increasing population places growing demands on food production, necessitating the cultivation of marginal lands and forest area and thus depleting the remaining forest stock, exposing steep slopes to erosion and reducing crop yields. Marginal land cultivation requires heavy inputs of animal manure to maintain fertility, which means that fermers must hold larger numbers of livestock. The consequent overgrazing of pastures, degradation of forests and scrub lands and compaction of trails on steep hill sides exacerbates the high eradibility potential of the land. Forest resources are in increased demand by a growing population for fuelwood, fodder and construction purposes. This places even more pressure on forests, which are unable to regenerate
Pastures and common lands: Increased overgrazing, destruction of all vegetation in some areas Further reduction of water holding capacity of soil Further soil compaction, overheating, loss of nutrients Rapidly rising incidence of landslides, gully formation, erosion. Livestock Increase in numbers Lower quality and productivity Lower health standards, and higher susceptibility to disease Forests Degraded stands due to fuelwood, fodder, timber extraction Overaging of remaining stands due to limited regeneration because of damage by livestock and fire Decreased diversity of species due to selectivity of grazing animals and forest product collectors. Household More numerous and larger Lower average cultivated area per capita Higher risks from climatic fluctuations Frequent or permanent food deficits Overcrowding in dwellings Greater susceptibility to disease Increasing scarcity or non-availability of firewood Increasing water scarcity Longer distances to collect firewood and water Emigration of able-bodied persons
General impoverishment Environment Increase in all types of erosion Increased silt load in lakes, streams, rivers Increased danger of destruction of infrastructure works such as trails, bridges, houses, terraces etc. Greater incidence and extent of floods(in endangered areas) Lowering of ground water table Adverse change in micro-climate Worsening of floods and droughts downstream Economy Further economic decline Further reduction of non-agricultural activities due to need to concentrate on subsistence needs More frequent disruption of travel due to mass land movements Increased dependence on external inputs. To this grim portrayal must be added one further point. Many of the developments described, particularly in the area of environment, are irreversible or require centuries to be reversed once they have passed a certain threshold. For example, soil erosion may reach a point where bedrock is exposed. Even a resilient ecosystem, which in many ways this one is, can come to a point of no return. In order to halt this downward trend before such thresholds are reached, immediate action is required. Chapter IV
